Abstract
X-rays have obvious attractions for microscopical investigation and the idea of so using them is as old as their discovery by Rontgen in 1895. His conclusion that lenses for X-rays could not be madel carried such authority that it is only in the past ten years or so that various other possibilities have been explored. Whilst a refractive system is now understood to be impractical, rather than impossible, the X-ray reflection microscope has been developed to give a resolving power almost equal to that of the best optical microscope. Quite different methods, involving geometrical projection, photographic enlargement, or the flying-spot technique, have been carried even farther and are becoming routine research tools, particularly in metallurgy and mineralogy. The principles, applications, and limitations of these techniques will be described below, but first we discuss the ways in which they supplement the information derived from established optical and electron-optical methods.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Röntgen
W. C.
, Sitzungsber. Med.-phys. Gas. Trarzburg , 1895 , p. 137 .
2.
Kirkpatrick
P.
Pattee
H. H.
, 'Handbuch der Physik",
Vol. XXX , p.305 . 1957 : Berlin (Springer-Verlag).•
3.
Trillat
J. J.
, Met. Rev ., 1956 , 1 , 3.
4.
Sharpe
R. S.
, "Progress in Non-Destructive Testing" . London (Pergamon Press) (in the press) .
5.
Cosslett
V. E.
Nixon
W. C.
, "X-Ray Microscopy" . 1960 : Cambridge (University Press).
6.(a) "X-Ray Microscopy and Microradiography" (edited by
Cosslett
V. E.
Engstrm
A.
Pattee
H. H.
) (Proceedings of Cambridge Symposium (1956)) . 1957 : New York (Academic Press) ; London (Academic Books) .
7.(b) "X-Ray Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis" . (Proceedings of Stockholm Symposium (1959 ) ). 1960 : Amsterdam (Elsevier ).
8.
Liquier-Milward
J.
, Nature , 1956 , 177 , 619 .
9.
Comer
J. J.
Skipper
S. J.
, Science , 1954 , 119, 441. H. H. Pattee, ref. 6(b), p. 56 .
10.
Oosterkamp
W. J.
, Philips Tech. Rep ., 1948 , 3 , 58 , 303 .
11.
Cosslett
V. E.
, Proc. Phys. Soc ., 1952 , [B], 65 , 782.
12.
Sherwood
H. F.
, Rev. Sci. Instruments , 1947 , 18 , 80.
13.
Engstrom
A.
and B. Lindström, Acta Radial ., 1951 , 35 , 33.
14.
Lindström
B.
, ibid., Suppl . 125 (1955 ).
15.
Votava
E.
Berghezan
A.
Gillette
R. H.
, ref. 6(a), p. 603 .
16.
Combée
B.
and A. Recourt, Philips Tech . Rev . 19, 221 .
17.
Bellman
S.
, Acta Radial., Suppl . 102 (1953 ).
18.
Engstrom
A.
Greulich
R. C.
, J. Appl. Physics , 1956 , 27 , 758.
19.
Betteridge
W.
Sharpe
R. S.
, J. Iron Steel inst ., 1948, 158, 185 ; Iron and Steel , 1948 , 21 , 242 .
20.
Sharpe
R. S.
, ref. 6(a), p. 590 .
21.
Sharpe
R. S.
, Indust. Image , 1957 , 2 , 15.
22.
Heycock
C. T.
Neville
F. H.
, J. Chem. Soc ., 1898 , 73, 714 ; Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc ., 1900 , [A], 194 , 201.
23.
Trillat
J. J.
, Rev. Sci ., 1940 , 78, 212; Bev. Met. 1949 , 46 , 79.
24.
Andrews
K. W.
Johnson
W.
, ref. 6(a). p. 581 .
25.
Niskanen
E.
, Norelco Reporter , 1959 , 6 , 70 .
26.
Goldschmidt
H. J.
, ref. 6(a), P. 600 .
27.(a)
Fournier
F.
, Rev. Mét ., 35, 349 ; 1949 , 46 , 360.
28.(b)
McBriar
E. M.
Johnson
W.
Andrews
K. W.
Davies
W.
, "Symposium on Sinter (1955)", (Special Rep. No. 53 ), p.145 . 1955 : London (Iron and Steel Inst. ).
29.
Cohen
E.
Schlogl
I.
, ref. 6(b), p. 133 .
30.
von Ardenne
M.
, Naturwiss ., 1939 , 27 , 485 .
31.
Cosslett
V. E.
Nixon
W. C.
, Nature , 1951 , 168 , 24.
32.
Cosslett
V. E.
Nixon
W. C.
, J. Appl. Physics , 1953 , 24 , 616.
33.
Nixon
W. C.
, Proc. Roy. Soc ., 1955 , [A], 232 , 475.
34.
Newberry
S. P.
Summers
S. E.
, ref. 6(a), p. 116 .
35.
Rovinsky
B. M.
Lutsau
V. G.
Avdeyenko
A. T.
, ibid ., P. 269 .
36.
Rovinsky
B. M.
Lutsau
V. G.
Avdeyenko
A. T.
, ref. 6(b), p. 110 .
37.
Nixon
W. C.
, "Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Electron Microscopy," (Berlin , 1958 ), P.
249 . 1960 : Berlin (Springer-Verlag).
38.
Ong
S. P.
Le Poole
J. B.
, Appl. Sci. Research , 1958 , [B], 7 , 233.
39.
Nixon
W. C.
, Thesis, Univ. Cambridge, 1952 .
40.
Le Poole
J. B.
Ong
S. P.
, Appl. Sci. Research , 1956 , [B], 5 , 454.
41.
Jackson
C. K.
, ref. 6(a), p. 623 .
42.
Nixon
W. C.
"Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Electron Microscopy" , (London 1954 ), P.
307 . 1956 : London (Royal Microscopical Society).
43.
Williams
W. M.
Smith
C. S.
, Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Met. Eng ., 1952 , 194 , 755.
44.
Ruff
A. W.
Kushner
L. M.
, ref. 6(b), p. 153 .
45.
Shinoda
G.
Amono
Y.
Tomura
T.
Shimizu
R.
, ref. 6(b), p. 162 .
46.
Long
J. V. P.
, J. Sci. Instruments , 1958 , 35 , 323.
47.
Mosley
V. M.
Wyckoff
R. W. G.
, J. Ultrastructure Research , 1958 , 1 , 337.
48.(a)
Sawkill
J.
, Brit. J. Appl. Physics (in the press).
49.(b)
Schwarzenberger
D. R.
, Phil. May ., 1959 , 4 , 1242 .
50.
Berg
W. F.
, Naturwiss ., 1931 , 19 , 391.
51.
Berg
W. F.
, Z. Krist ., 1934 , 89 , 286.
52.
Barrett
C. S.
, Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Met. Eng ., 1945 , 161 , 15.
53.
Honeycombe
R. W. K.
, J. Inst. Metals , 1951 –52, 80 , 39, 45.
54.
Ancker
B.
Hazlett
T. H.
Parker
E. R.
, J. Appl. Physics , 1956 , 27 , 333.
55.
Newkirk
J. B.
, Phys . Rev ., 1958 , 110, 1465 ; J. Appl. Physics , 1958 , 29 , 955.
56.
Newkirk
J. B.
, ref. 6(b); Trans. Met. Soc .1959 , 215 , 483.
57.
Weissmann
S.
, J. Appl. Physics , 1956 , 27 , 389 , 1335 .
58.
Weissmann
S.
, ref. 6(b), p. 488 .
59.
Weissmann
S.
, ref. 6(b), p. 497 .
60.
Smoluchowski
R.
Lucht
C. M.
Mann
M.
, Phys. Rev ., 1946 , 70 , 318.
61.
Berghezan
A.
Lacombe
P.
Chaudron
G.
, Compt. rend ., 1950 , 231 , 576 .
62.
Lang
A. R.
, Acta Met ., 1957 , 5 , 358.
63.
Lang
A. R.
, J. Appl. Physics ., 29, 597 ; 1959 , 30 , 1748.
64.
Barth
H.
Hosemann
R.
, Z. Naturforsch ., 1958 , [A], 13 , 792.
65.
Coyle
R. A.
Marshall
A. M.
Auld
J. H.
McKinnon
N. A.
, Brit. J. Appl. Physics , 1957 , 8 , 79.
66.
Borrmann
G.
Hartwig
W.
Irmler
H.
, Z. Naturforsch ., 1958 , [A], 13 , 423.
67.
Lonsdale
K.
, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc . 1947 , [A], 240 , 219.
68.
Nixon
W. C.
, ref. 6(a), p. 336 .
69.
Ehrenberg
W.
Spear
W. E.
, Proc. Phys. Soc ., 1951 , [B], 64 , 67.
70.
Hirsch
P. B.
, "X-Ray Diffraction by Polycrystalline Materials" , (edited by
Peiser
H. S.
et al.), p. 278 . 1955 : London (Inst. Physics.).
71.
Huxley
H. E.
, Ada Cryst ., 1953 , 6 , 457.
72.(a)
Compton
A. H.
Allison
S. K.
, "X-Rays in Theory and Experiment" . 1935 : London (Macmillan).
73.(b)
Glocker
R.
, "Materialpriifung mit Röntgenstrahlen" . 1958 : Berlin (Springer-Verlag).
74.
Henke
B. L.
White
R.
Lundberg
B.
, J. Appl. Physics , 1957 , 28 , 98.
75.
Engstrom
A.
, "Physical Techniques in Biological Research" , Vol. III , Chapter
10 . 1956 : New York (Academic Press); London (Academic Books).
76.
Lindstrom
B.
Hoh
F. C.
, J. Ultrastructure Research , 1959 , 2 , 512.
77.(a)
Guinier
A.
, Compt. rend ., 1943 , 216 , 48 .
78.(b)
Pale
M.
, ibid., 1941, 213, 572; Rev . ML , 1951 , 48 , 116 .
79.(c)
Lahodny
A.
Nonveiller
F.
, Rev. Met ., 1951 , 48 , 778 .
80.(b)
Lublin
P.
, "Proceedings of 8th Conference on X-Ray Analysis" (1959 ). 1960 : Denver (Univ. Denver ).
81.(e)
Dodd
C. G.
, ibid .
82.
Long
J. V. P.
McConnell
J. D. C.
, Mineral. Mag ., 1959 , 32 , 117.
83.
von Hevesy
G.
, "Chemical Analysis by X-Rays and Its Applications" . 1932 : New York and London (McGraw-Hill).
84.(a)
Clark
G. L.
, "Applied X-Rays " , 4th edn . 1955 : New York and London (McGraw-Hill).
85.
Castaing
R.
, Thesis, Univ. Paris , 1951 .
86.
Borovsky
I. V.
, "Collection of Problems in Metallurgy" . 1953 , p. 135.
Moscow (Acad. Sciences , U.S.S.R .).
87.
Castaing
R.
Philibert
J.
Crussard
C.
, Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Met. Eng ., 1957 , 209 , 389 .
88.
Castaing
R.
Descamps
J.
, J.Phys. Radium , 1955 , 16 , 304.
89.
Buschmann
E. C.
Norton
J. F.
, "Proceedings of 6th Conference on X-Ray Analysis" (1957 ), p. 207 . 1958 : Denver (Univ. Denver).
90.
Bessen
I. I.
, J. Appl. Physics , 1957 , 28 , 1369 .
91.
Mulvey
T.
, Rev. Met ., 1959 , 56, 163; ref. 6(b), p. 372 ; J. Sci. Instruments , 1959 , 36 , 350.
92.
Page
R. S.
Openshaw
I. K.
' ref. 6(b), p. 385 .
93.
Borovsky
I. V.
Thin
N. P.
, Zavod. Lab ., 1957 , 10 , 1234 .
94.
Birks
L. S.
Brooks
E. J.
, Rev. Sci. Instruments , 1957 , 28, 709; "Proceed-ings of 6th Conference on X-Ray Analysis" (1957 ), p. 339 . 1958 : Denver (Univ. Denver).
95.(a)
Wittry
D. B.
, Thesis, California Inst. Technology, Pasadena , 1957 ; J . Appl. Physics , 1958 , 29 , 1643 .
96.(5)
Wittry
D. B.
. "Proceedings of 8th Conference on X-Ray Analysis" (1959 ). 1960 : Denver (Univ. Denver ).
97.
Cosslett
V. E.
, B.I.S.R.A. Rep. No . (MG/EC/227/52 ), 1952 .
98.
Cosslett
V. E.
Duncumb
P.
, Nature , 1956 , 177, 1172; "Proceedings of Stockholm Conference on Electron Microscopy" (1956 ), p. 12 . 1957 : Stock-holm (Almqvist und Wiksell).
99.
Duncumb
P.
, Thesis, Univ. Cambridge , 1957 ; ref.
6 (5 ), p. 365 .
100.
McMullan
D.
, Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng ., 1953 , Lill 100 , 245 .
101.
Smith
K. C. A.
Oatley
C. W.
, Brit. J. Appl. Physics , 1955 , 6 , 391.
102.
Duncumb
P.
Melford
D. A.
, ref. 6 (5 ), p. 358 .
103.
Long
J. V. P.
, Thesis, Univ. Cambridge, 1959 .
104.
Agrell
S. O.
Long
J. V. P.
, ref. 6(b), p. 391 .
105.
Duncumb
P.
, Brit. J. Appl. Physics , 1959 , 10 , 420 .
106.
Dolby
R. M.
, ibid ., 1960 , 11 , 64.
107.
Mulvey
T.
Campbell
A. J.
, ibid ., 1958 , 9 , 406 .
108.
Dolby
R. M.
, Proc. Phys. Soc ., 1959 , 73 , 81.
109.
Dolby
R. M.
Cosslett
V. E.
, ref. 6(b), p. 381 .
110.
Castaing
R.
, "Electron Physics" (report of 1951 Symposium) , p. 305 . 1954 : Washington (Nat. Bur. Stand.).
111.
Philibert
J.
Crussard
C.
, Rev. Met ., 1956 , 53, 461 ; J. Iron Steel Inst ., 1956 , 183 , 42.
112.
Philibert
J.
and C. de Beaulieu, Rev. Met ., 1959 , 56, 171. J. Philibert and H. Bizouard, ref. 6(b), p. 416 ; Rev. Mét . 1959 , 56 , 187.
113.
Philibert
J.
, "La diffusion dans les metaux " , p. 77 , 1957 : Eindhoven (Bibliotheque Techn. Philips).
114.(a)
Adda
Y.
Philibert
J.
, Comp& rend ., 1956 , 242, 3081; 1957 , 245, 2507; 1958 , 246, 113; 247, 80 .
115.(b)
Adda
Y.
Philibert
J.
Faraggi
H.
, Rev. Mel , 1957 , 54 , 597 .
116.
Castaing
R.
, "Advances in Electronics and Electron Physics," Vol. XIII . 1960 : New York (Academic Press); London (Academic Books).
117.
Fisher
R. M.
Swartz
J. C.
, "Proceedings of 5th Conference on X-Ray Analysis," (1956 ). 1957 : Denver (Univ. Denver ).
118.
Schwartz
C. M.
Austin
A. E.
, J. Appl. Physics , 1957 , 28 , 1368 .
119.
Austin
A. E.
Richard
N. A.
Schwartz
C. M.
, ref. 6(b), p. 401 .
120.
Ogilvie
R.
, private communication .
121.
Wittry
D. B.
, "Proceedings of 8th Conference on X-Ray Analysis" (1959 ), 1960 : Denver (Univ. Denver ).
122.
Maringer
R. E.
Richard
N. A.
Austin
A. E.
, Trans. Met. Soc. A.I.M.E ., 1959 , 215 , 56.
123.
Borovsky
I. V.
, ref. 6(b), p. 344 .
124.
Melford
D. A.
Duncumb
P.
, Metallurgia , 1958 , 57 , 159.
125.
Melford
D. A.
, ref. 6(b), p. 407 .
126.
Duncumb
P.
, Brit . J. Appl. Physics , 1960 , 11 , 169 .
127.
Bernard
A.
Bryson-Haynes
D.
Mulvey
T.
, J. Sci. Instruments , 1959 , 36 , 438 .
128.
Agrell
S. O.
Long
J. V. P.
, ref. 6(b), p.391; Mineral. Mag . (in the press).