Abstract
A comprehensive review is presented of the extractive metallurgy of niobium, tantalum, and vanadium. An account of the various resources of these metals is followed by sections on resource processing, reduction processes, and refining. The review coneludes with a summary of present trends and future projections for each metal.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Weeks
M. E.
: 'Discovery of the elements', 6 edn; 1956 , Easton , Pa, Mack Printing Co .
2.
Tietz
T. E.
Wilson
J. W.
: 'Behaviour and properties of refractory metals' ; 1965 , Stanford , Cal., Stanford University Press .
3.
Hampel
C. A.
(ed.): 'The encyclopedia of the chemical elements', 2 edn;
1968 ,New York , Reinhold .
4.
Hampel
C. A.
(ed.): 'Rare metals handbook', 2 edn;
1961 , London , Reinhold .
5.
Zelikman
A. N.
Krein
O. E.
Samsonov
G. V.
: 'Metallurgy of rare metals' ; 1966 , Jerusalem , Israel Program for Scientific Translations .
6.
Songina
O. A.
: 'Rare metals', 3 edn; 1970 , Jerusalem , Israel Program for Scientific Translations .
7.
Miller
G. L.
: 'Tantalum and niobium'; 1959 , London,Butterworths.
8.
Sisco
F. T.
Epremium
E.
(eds.): 'Columbium and tantalum' ; 1963 , New York , Wiley .
9.
Fairbrother
F.
: 'The chemistry of niobium and tantalum'; 1967 , Amsterdam London New York , Elsevier .
10.
Jamrack
W. D.
: 'Rare metal extraction by chemical engineering techniques', (ed.
Danckwerts
P. V.
); 1963 , Oxford , London, New York, Frankfurt, Pergamon .
11.
Cox
F.G.
: Weld. Met. Fabr ., Oct 1956 ,2 .
12.
Gonser
B.W.
Sherwood
E. M.
(eds.): 'Technology of columbium (niobium)' ; 1958 , New York , Wiley .
13.
Douglas
D. L.
Kunz
F. W.
(eds.): 'Columbium metallurgy' ;1961 ,New York , London, Inter science .
14.
Wilkinson
J. D.
: 'Fabrication of refractory metals' ;1970 , New York , Gordon and Breach .
15.
Quarrell
A. G.
(ed.): 'Niobium, tantalum, molybdenum and tungsten', Amsterdam, London, New York, Princeton, Elsevier .
16.
Rostoker
W.
: 'The metallurgy of vanadium'; 1958 ,New York , Wiley .
17.
Standen
A.
(ed.): 'Encyclopaedia of chemical technology', 2 edn;1963-70,
New York , London, Sydney, Toronto, Inter science, Wiley .
18.
Grayson
M.
(ed.): 'Encyclopaedia of chemical technology', 3rd edn;
1978 onwards , New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto, Wiley .
19.
Gupta
C.K.
Jena
P.K.
: Trans. Indian Inst. Met ., 1965,18 ,89 .
20.
Gupta
C.K.
Sundaram:
C. V.
Benar_as Metallurgist , 1973 , 5 , (Golden Jubilee Number ), 190 .
21.
Burwell
B.
:,T.Met .,1961 ,13 ,562 .
22.
Evans
R. K.
: Met. Materials , April
1978 ,19 .
23.
Met. Materials, Jan.-Feb.
1981 ,51 .
24.
Burton
W.R.
: 'Columbium and tantalum - a materials survey', IC 8120 , US Bureau of Mines , Washington, DC , 1962 .
25.
Parker
R. L.
Adams:
J. W.
US Geological Survey Prof. Paper 820 ,1973 ,443 .
26.
Parker
R.L.
Fleischer:
M.
US Geological Survey Prof. Paper 611 ,1968 ,43 .
27.
Agoos
A.
: Eng. Min. J ., March 1981 , 182,136 ; March 1982 , 183 , 91 .
28.
Emerson
M. E.
: Eng. Min. J ., March 1981 , 182, 167 ; March 1982 ,183 , 149 .
29.
Tron
A.R.
: Min. Ann. Rev ., 1979 , 86; 1980, 95; 1981, 87 .
30.
Stipp
H. E.
: 'Columbium-MCP-10' , US Bureau of Mines , Washington, DC , 1978 .
31.
Habashi
F.
Malinsky:
I.
Can. Min. Metall. Bull. , 1975 ,68 , 1 .
32.
Jones
T. S.
: 'Tantalum-MCP' , US Bureau of Mines ,Washington,DC ,1979 .
33.
Busch
P. M.
: 'Vanadium — a materials survey',IC 8060 , US Bureau of Mines , Washington, DC , 1961 .
34.
Mustaro
R. J.
Tarpey
L.
Lawton
K.
(eds.): Am. Met. Market , 6 Jan . 1971 , International Vanadium Section .
35.
Warde
J. M.
: Eng. Min. J ., 1981, 182 , 123 .
36.
McMillan
F.V.
: Eng. Min. J ., 1982, 183 ,100 .
37.
Briggs
S.J.
: Met . Technol .,1983 ,10 , (4 ), 150 .
38.
Broderick
G. N.
: 'Vanadium-MCP-8' , US Bureau of Mines , Washington, DC , 1977 .
39.
Thomson
A.G.
: Min. Ann. Rev. , 1979 , 85 ; 1980 , 94; 1981, 87 .
40.
Crabtree
E. H.
Smith
F. L.
: J. Less-Common Met ., 1961 ,3 ,433 .
41.
Weeks
A. D.
: J. Less- Common Met ., 1961 , 3 ,443 .
42.
Stemerowicz
A.
,R. W. Bruce, G. V. Sirianni, and G. E. Viens : Can. Min. Metall. Bull ., 1976,69 ,1 .
43.
Gomez-Bueno
C. O.
Spink
D. R.
Rempel
G. L.
: Metall. Trans ., 1981 ,12B ,341 .
44.
Balke
C. W.
: Ind. Eng. Chem. (Ind .), 1935 , 27 , (10 ),1166 .
45.
Myers
R. H.
Greenwood:
J. N.
Proc. Aust. Inst. Min. Metall. , 1943 , (129 ), 41 .
46.
Giles.
W. B.
: Chem. News , 95, 1 ; 1909 , 99 , 1 .
47.
Wedekind
E.
Maass
W.
: Z. angew. Chem ., 1910 ,23 ,2314 .
48.
Oka
Y.
Miyamoto
M.
: J. Elect rochem. Soc. Jpn , 1949 ,17 , 63 .
49.
Fink
C.G.
Jenness
L.G.
: Am. Inst. Min. Metall. Tech. Publ . No. 379 ,1931 .
50.
Bhattacharya
H.
: J. Indian Chem. Soc ., 1952 , 29 , (11 ),871 .
51.
Lee
J. A.
: Chem . Eng .,1948 ,55 ,110 .
52.
Gibbs
O. W.
: Am. J. Sci. , 1864 , 2 , 355 .
53.
Berry
B. E.
Miller
G. L.
Williams
S. V.
: 'Production of tantalum in Germany ', BIOS Final Rep. No. 803 , 1946 .
54.
Kroll
W. J.
: Metall. Rev ., 1956 ,1 , 291 .
55.
Wright
M. L.
Block
F. E.
: in Proc. 2nd United Nations Int. Conf. on 'Peaceful uses of atomic energy' , Geneva , 1958 , Vol. 4 , 327 .
56.
Gustison
R. A.
Cenerazzo
J. A.
: J. Met ., 1971, 23 , 45 .
57.
Meyer
Horst
: Ger. Offen. 2 435 427 (Cl C 22B) , 1976 .
58.
Chakravarti
B. N.
Prince:
A. T.
'The chlorination of niobium ores and concen-trates ', Report No. MD 220, Mineral Dressing and Process Metallurgy Division of Mines and Technical Surveys,Mines Branch, Ottawa , 1957 .
59.
Worsley
I.G.
Jaillet
J.B.
: Can. Metall. Q .,1973 ,12 , (4 ), 459 .
60.
McIntosh
A.B.
Broadley:
J. S.
in 'Extrac-tion and refining of the rarer metals ', 272 ; 1957 , London , Institution of Mining and Metallurgy .
61.
Dickson
G.K.
Dukes
J.A.
: in 'Extractionand refining of the rarer metals', 258 ;1957 , London , Institution of Mining and Metallurgy .
62.
Placek
C.
Taylor
D. F.
: Ind. Eng. Chem.(mnd .), 1956 , 48 , (4 ), 687 .
63.
Carlson
C.W.
Nielsen
R.H.
: J. Met ., 1960,12 ,472 .
64.
May
S. L.
Tews
J. L.
Goff
T. N.
RI
5862 , US Bureau of Mines , Washington,DC , 1961 .
65.
Rosenbaum
J. B.
George
D. R.
May
J. T.
IC
8502 , US Bureau of Mines, Washington, DC,
1971 .
66.
Damodaran
A. D.
et al.: Proc. Indian Nat.Sci. Acad .,1970 , 36A , (5 ),306 .
67.
Curvelliez
F.
: British Patent 644 544 , 1950 ; US Patent 2 429 671,1947 .
68.
Kroll
W. J.
Bacon:
F. E.
US Patent 24 27 360,
1947 ; US Patent 2 443 254,1948 .
69.
Leemans
J. P.
: British Patent 645 832 ,1947 .
70.
Steele
B.R.
Geldart:
D.
in 'Extraction and refining of the rarer metals ', 287 ;1957 , London , Institution of Mining and Metallurgy .
71.
son
L. A. Nisel'
: Zh. Neorg . Khim .,1958 , 2603; Russ. J. Inorg. Chem. , 1958 , 3 , (12 ), 14 .
72.
Vanlaer
M.
Durand
R.
: Rev. Phys. Appi .,June , 1970 , 5 ,487 .
73.
Muendel
C.H.
Rowe
R. A.
: in 'The designof metal producing processes ', (ed.
Kibby
R. M.
), 284 ; 1969 , New York , American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and Petroleum Engineers .
74.
Ishiyama
T.
Kuroda
T.
: Denki Shikensho/ho , 1960 , 24 , 471 .
75.
Schafer
H.
Pietruck
C.
: Z. anorg. Chem .,1951 , 266 ,152 .
76.
Sadoway
D. R.
Flengas
S. N.
: Metall.Trans ., 1980 , 11B , 57 .
77.
Rosenbaum
J.B.
: Paper presented at the High Temperature Metal Committee, ALME , New York , Feb.1971 .
78.
Fox
J. S.
Dresher
W. H.
.: US Patent 3 7 33 193;
1973 .
79.
Stephens
F. M.
Jr
Tangel
O. F.
: in 'Uranium ore processing ', 103 ;1958 , Clegg and Foley .
80.
Crabtree
E. H.
Padilla
V. E.
: J. Less-Common Met. , 1961 ,3 , 437 .
81.
Chindgren
C. J.
Bauerle
L. C.
Rosenbaum
J. B.
: RI 5937 , US Bureau of Mines, Washington,DC,
1962 .
82.
McCarley
R. E.
Roddy
J. W.
: J. Less-Common Met. ,1960 ,2 , 29 .
83.
Frick
F.F.
: US Patent 2 357 466,
1944 .
84.
Chindgren
C. J.
Baurele
L. C.
Shibar
B. K.
RI
7058 , US Bureau of Mines , Washington, DC , 1967 .
85.
Robiette
A. G.
: NML Tech. J ., 1962 ,4 , 26 .
86.
Silitonga
M.
Prosser
A. P.
: Proc. Aust. Inst. Min. Metall ., 1976 , (259 ),13 .
87.
Kanta Rao
P.
Bhaskara Sarma
P. V. R.
Tripathy
A. K.
Jena
P. K.
: Trans . Inst. Min. Metall ., 1979 ,88 , C187 .
88.
Brooks
P. T.
Nichols
I. L.
Potter
G. M.
: Paper presented at the High Temperature Metal Committee AIME , New York , Feb . 1971 .
89.
Kapo
G.
: in 'Bitumens, asphalts and tar sands ',(ed.
Chilingarian
G. V.
Yen
T. F.
); 1978 , Amsterdam , Elsevier .
90.
Carlson
O. N.
: in 'Progress in extractivemetallurgy ', Vol. 1 , (ed.
Habashi
F.
), 89 ; 1973 , New York , Gordon and Breach .
91.
Gupta
C.K.
: in 'Process metallurgy', SilverJubilee Symp. , Indian Institute of Metallurgy , New Delhi , 1972 , 515 .
92.
Belitskus
D.
: J. Met ., 1972, 24 , 30 .
93.
Belitskus
D.
: J. Met ., 1973, 25 , 39 .
94.
Perfect
F.H.
: Trans. AIME , 1967 ,239 ,1282 .
95.
Perfect
F.H.
: Metall . Trans .,1981 ,12B ,611 .
96.
Marden
J. W.
H
M.
.Rich, US Patent 1 7 28 941,1927 .
97.
Marden
J. W.
Rich
M. H.
: Ind. Eng. Chem .,1927 ,19 ,786 .
98.
Dennis
W. E.
Adamson
A. F.
, 'Reductionof niobium compounds by metal reductants', Technical Note No. 92 , UKAEA , 1954 .
99.
Sehra
J. C.
Bose
D. K.
Jena
P. K.
: Trans.Indian Inst. Met ., 1968,21 ,21 .
100.
Mukherjee
T K.
Kamat,
G. R.
and C. K. Gupta : J. Met ., 1970, 22 , 50 .
101.
Block
F. E.
: Dechema - Monographien , 1958 , 33 ,69 .
102.
Joly
M. F.
: in Proc. 2nd United Nations Int. Conf. on 'Peaceful uses of atomic energy' , Geneva , 1958 , Vol. 4 , 309 .
103.
Gupta
C.K.
Jena
P. K.
. : J. Less-Common Met. , 1965 ,8 , 90 .
104.
Gupta
C. K.
Jena
P.K.
: Trans. AIME , 1964 , 230 , 1433 .
105.
Gregory
E.W.
Lillindahl
W. C.
Wroughton
D.W.
: J. Electrochem. Soc ., 1951 , 98 , 395 .
106.
McKechnie
R.K.
Seybolt
A. U.
: J. Elect rochem. Soc ., 1950 , 97 , 311 .
107.
Beard
A. P.
Crooks
D. D.
: J. Electrochem. Soc. ,1954 ,101 , 597 .
108.
&Wilhelm
H.
Long
J. R.
: US Patent 2 700 606 , 1955 .
109.
Tyzack
C.
England:
P. G.
in 'Extraction and refining of the rarer metals ', 175 ;1957 , London , Institution of Mining and Metallurgy .
110.
Campbell
T. T.
Block
F. E.
Anderson
E. R.
RI
6374 , US Bureau of Mines , Washington, DC , 1964 .
111.
Kelley
J. C. R.
: US Patent 2 702 729,
1955 ; US Patent 2 776 871,1957 .
112.
Goldschmidt
H.
: Liebig Ann. , 1898 , 301,19 .
113.
Goldschmidt
H.
Vanten:
C.
J. Soc. Chem . ind ., 1898 , 19 , 543 .
114.
Goldschmidt
H.
Weil
O.
: US Patent 895 628 ,1908 .
115.
Goldschmidt
H.
: French Patent 358 071 ,1905 .
116.
Goldschmidt
H.
: Iron Age ,1908 ,82 , 232 .
117.
Goldschmidt
H.
: US Patent (re-issue ) 13 010 , 1909 .
118.
Goldschmidt
H.
: Engineer ,1913 , 94 , 485 .
119.
Wilhelm
H. A.
Schmidt
F. A.
Ellis
T. G.
: J . Met .,1966 ,18 ,1303 .
120.
Gupta
C.K.
Jena
P.K.
: Trans. Indian Inst. Met ., Dec.1969 ,22 ,51 .
121.
Mayer
A.
R
W.
. Hubler : Canadian Patent 620 036 ,1961 .
122.
Li
J.C.
: US Patent 2 992 095,
1961 .
123.
Kamat
G. R.
Gupta
C.K.
: Metall. Trans ., 1971 ,2 ,2817 .
124.
Narayanan
C.
Mukherjee
T. K.
Bose
D. K.
Gupta
C.K.
: Trans. Indian Inst. Met ., 1977 , 30 , (6 ),387 .
125.
Gupta
C.K.
Jena
P.K.
: J. Met. , 1968 , 20 , 25 .
126.
Wilhelm
H. A.
Bergman
R. M.
Schmidt
F. A.
: J. Met ., 1970, 22 , 45 .
127.
Nair
K. U.
Mukherjee
T.K.
Gupta
C.K.
: J. Less-Common Met. ,1975 ,41 , 87 .
128.
Baughman
R. L.
Taylor
D. F.
: J. Met ., 1960,12 ,160 .
129.
Carlson
O. N.
Schmidt
F. A.
Krupp
W. E.
: J. Met ., 1966,18 ,320 .
130.
Carlson
O. N.
Schmidt:
F. A.
Annual Summary Report, IS-1900, Ames Laboratory, US Atomic Energy Commission , 1968 , P.M
1 –5 .
131.
Wang
C. T.
Baroch
E. F.
Worcestor
S. A.
Shen
Y. S.
: Metall. Trans ., 1970 ,1 , 1683 .
132.
Mukherjee
T.K.
Gupta:
C. K.
J. Less-Common Met. ,1972 ,27 , 251 .
133.
Pillai
P. V.S.
Nair
K.U.
Mukherjee
T.K.
Gupta
C. K.
: Trans. Indian Indian Inst. Met. , 1973 ,26,(6),24 .
134.
Mehra
O. K.
Gupta
C.K.
: Metall. Trans ., 1977 ,8B ,683 .
135.
Gupta
C.K.
Sun
A. K.
: 'Ferroalloys technology in India' ; 1982 , New Delhi , Milind Publications .
136.
Mehra
O.K.
Bose
D. K.
Gupta
C.K.
: in Proc. Int. Ferroalloys Cong. , Acapulco, Mexico , Aug. 1978 , (Ferrocediens 1978 ).
137.
Mehra
O. K.
Bose
D. K.
Gupta
C.K.
: Steel India , 1980 ,3 , (1 ), 16
138.
Mehra
O.K.
Taneja
A. K.
Gupta
C. K.
Jena
P. K.
: Trans. Indian Inst. Met ., 1971,24 ,66 .
139.
Pattnaik
S. P.
Mukherjee
T. K.
Gupta
C. K.
: Metall. Trans. , 1983 , 14B , 133 .
140.
Downing
J. H.
Clarence
D. H.
Merkert
R. F.
: US Patent 3 334 992 ,1967 .
141.
Bose
D.K.
Gupta
C. K.
: Metall. Trans ., 1977 , 8B , 601 .
142.
Gustison
R.A.
: US Patent 3 801 308,
1974 .
143.
Isaza
J. P.
Shaler
A. J.
Wulff
J.
: Met. Technol. ,1947 ,14 , (6 ); AIMME Tech. Publ. No. 2277 .
144.
Johansen
H. A.
May:
S. L.
Ind. Eng. Chem . (mnd.) , 1954 ,46 , (12 ), 2499 .
145.
Morette
A.
: Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. (Paris) , 1935 ,200 ,1110 .
146.
Foley
E.
Ward
M.
Hock
A. L.
: in 'Extraction and refining of the rarer metals ', 196 ;1957 , London , Institution of Mining and Metallurgy .
147.
Block
F. E.
Brown
R. R.
Ferrante
M. J.
RI
5722 , US Bureau of Mines , Washington, DC , 1961 .
148.
Ferrante
M. J.
Block
F. E.
Scheller
J. L.
RI
7145 , US Bureau of Mines , Washington, DC , 1968 .
149.
Campbell
T. T.
Schaller
J. L.
Block
F. E.
: Metall . Trans ., 1973 ,4 , 237 .
150.
Glasser
J.
A
C.
. Hampel: US Patent 2 703 752 ,1951 .
151.
Keller
W.H.
S
I.
. Zonis: US Patent 2 848 320 ,1958 .
152.
Pranda
W.
Manz:
H.
Z. anorg. Chem .,182 .1912 , 79 , 209 .
153.
Hunter
M.
Jones
A.
: Trans. Am. Electrochem. Soc ., 1923 ,44 ,23 .183 .
154.
Von Bolton
W.
: Z. Elektrochem .,1907 , 13 , 145 .
155.
Smithells
C. J.
: Met. Ind. (Lond .), 1931 , 38 , 336 .
156.
Titterington
R.
Simpson:
A. G.
in 185.'Symposium on powder metallurgy 1954 ', 11 ;1956 , London , The Iron and Steel Institute .
157.
Bose
D. K.
Sehra
J. C.
Jena
P. K.
: Trans. Indian Inst. Met ., 1970, 23 , 1 .
158.
Jain
S.C.
Bose
D.K.
Gupta
C.K.
: Trans. Indian Inst. Met ., Dec .1971 , 24 , 1 .
159.
Ellingham
H. J. T.
: J. Soc. Chem. Ind ., 1944 , 63 , 125 .
160.
Richardson
F. E.
E Jeffes
J. H.
.: J. Iron188. Steel Inst. , 1948 ,160 , 261 .
161.
Worrell
W. L.
Chipman
J.
: Trans. AIME , 1964 ,230 ,1682 .
162.
Moissan
H.
: Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci ., 1901 , 133 ,20 .
163.
Kroll
W.J.
Schlechten
A. W.
: J. Electrochem. Soc ., 1948 , 93 , 247 .191 .
164.
Balke
C.W.
: Trans. Electrochem. Soc ., 1944 , 85 ,89 .
165.
Siebert
M. E.
Steinberg
M. A.
: in 'Reactive metals , (ed.
Clough
W. R.
), 171 ; 1959 , New York , Inter science .194 .
166.
Sazhin
N. P.
Kolchin
P. O.
Sumarokai
N. V.
: Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Otd. Tekh . 195.Nauk Met. Toplivo , 1961 , 6 , 8 .
167.
Geld
P. V.
Shveikin
G. P.
: Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR , Otd. Tekh. Nauk Met. Toplivo , 44.
168.
Lyubimov
V. D.
Geld
P. V.
Shveikin
G. P.
Alyamovsky
C. I.
: J. Appi. Chem. , 1965 , 38 ,2136 ; Zh. Prikl. Khim.,1965 , 38 , 747 .
169.
Geld
P.V.
Shveikin
G. P.
: in 'The uses of vacuum in metallurgy ', (ed.
Bishop
E.
), 91 ; 1964 , Edinburgh , Oliver and Boyd .
170.
Fromm
E.
Spaeth
G.
: Z. Metallkd ., 1968 , 59 ,65 .
171.
Ono
K.
Moriyama
J.
: in 'Proc.4th ICVM ', 1974 ,Iron and Steel Institute of Japan et al., Section 3 ,170 , 203 .
172.
Darling
A. S.
: Metallurgia , 1961 , 64 , July , 7 ; Aug. , 71 .
173.
Stevens
E. R.
William
H. A.
: 'Reduction of niobium pentoxide with carbon ', Report205. IS-339, Ames Laboratory, US Atomic Energy Commission , 1961 .
174.
Suri
A.K.
Gupta
C. K.
: Trans. Indian Inst. Met. , Apri1 , 1978 , 31 , (2 ), 152 .
175.
Kimura
H.
Sasaki
Y.
: Trans. Natl. Res. Inst. Met. , 1963 ,5 , 213 , 274 .
176.
Fromm
E.
: in 'Sur les application des techniques du vide a la métallurgie', Strasbourg , 1967 ,108 .
177.
Fromm
E.
Heinkel
O.
: Z. Metallkd ., 1967 ,208 .58 , 805 .
178.
Hamilton
C.B.
Wilhelm
H. A.
: Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci. ,1961 ,68 , 189 .
179.
Kolchin
O. P.
Berlin
I. K.
: Tsvetn. Met ., 1964 , 37 , (8 ), 66 (Eng.ed. ).
180.
Kieffer
R.
Lihl,and
F.
Effenberger
E.
: in Proc. 6th Plansee Seminar, Reutte, Tyrol , 1968 .
181.
saev
R. A. Kara
et al.: Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Otd. Tekh. Nauk , 1956 , (4 ), 94 .
182.
Hampel
C.A.
: 'The encyclopedia of electro-chemistry ';1964 ,New York , Reinhold, London, Chapman and Hall .
183.
Senderoff
S.
: Metall. Rev .,1966 ,11 , 97 .
184.
Udupa
H. V.K.
Venkatesan
V. K.
. : 'Encyclopedia of electrochemistry of the elements ', Vol. 2 , (ed.
Bard
A. J.
), 53 , 1973 , New York , Marcel Dekker .
185.
Israel
Y.
Meites
L.
: in 'Encyclopedia of electrochemistry of the elements ',Vol.3 , (ed.
Bard
A. J.
),293 ;1976 , New York , Marcel Dekker .
186.
Mukherjee
T.K.
Gupta
C.K.
: Trans. Soc. Adv. Electrochem. Sci. Technol. , 1976 , 11 , 127 .
187.
Bowles
P. J.
: in 'Advances in extractive metallurgy ', 600 ; 1968 , London , Institution of Mining and Metallurgy .
188.
Drossback
P.
: Z. Electrochem ., 1953 , 57 , 548 .
189.
Scholze
G.
Ziegenbalg
S.
: in Kolloquim 'Metallurgie der Seltenen Metalle und der Sparenmetalle Freiberg , Feb . 1964 , 1965 , 228 .
190.
Driggs
F.H.
Lilliendahl
W. C.
: Ind. Eng. Chem. (Ind .), 1931 ,23 ,634 .
191.
Myers
R. H.
: Proc. Aust. Inst. Min. Eng ., 1946 , 144 , 297 .
192.
Konstantinov
V. I.
Sklyarenko
S. I.
Kholobes
E. A.
: Poroshk. Metall ., 1961 ,4 ,47 .
193.
Driggs
F.H.
: US Patent 1 815 054,
1931 .
194.
Nishimura
S.
Moriyama,and
J.
Kushima
I.
: Nippon Kogyo Kaishi , 1961 , 77 , 49 .
195.
Mellors
G.W.
Senderoff
S.
: J. Electrochem. Soc ., 1966 ,113 ,66 .
196.
Decroly
C.
Mukhtar
A.
Winand
R.
: J. Electrochem. Soc ., 1968 , 115 , 905 .
197.
Kamat
G. R.
Mukherjee
T. K.
Gupta
C. K.
: Trans. Indian Inst. Met ., 1971, 24 ,55 .
198.
Ma
C.C.
: Ind. Eng. Chem. ,1952 ,44 , 342 .
199.
Slatin
H.L.
: US Patent 2 899 369,
1959 .
200.
Kolk
A. J.
Jr
Sibert
M. E.
Steinberg
M. A.
: in Ref . 12 , p. 44 .
201.
Wong
M.M.
Kirby:
D. E.
Electrochem. Technol. , 1968 ,6 , 119 .
202.
Lei
K. P.V.
Sullivan
T.A.
: RI 7484 , US Bureau of Mines , Washington, DC , 1971 .
203.
Lei
K. P. V.
Campbell
R. E.
Sullivan
T. A.
: J. Electrochem Soc. , 1973 , 120 , 211 .
204.
Guidotti
R.A.
Kesterke
D.G.
: Metall . Trans. , 1973 , 4 , 1233 .
205.
Guidotti
R. A.
Atkinson
G. B.
Kesterke
D. G.
RI
8079 , US Bureau of Mines , Washington,DC , 1975 .
206.
Guidotti
R. A.
Atkinson
G. B.
Kasterke
D. G.
RI
8103 , US Bureau of Mines , Washington, DC , 1976 .
207.
Garg
S.P.
Gupta
C.K.
Sundaram
C.V.
: in Proc. of Indo-US Workshop on 'Mineral processing and chemical metallurgy' , Dec. 1981 , Udaipur, , India.
208.
Venkataramani
R.
Garg
S. P.
Sundaram
C.V.
: J. Less-Common Met. , 1973 , 32 , 279 .
209.
Garg
S. P.
Venkataramani
R.
Sundaram
C.V.
: J. Less-Common Met. , 1976 , 50 , 245 .
210.
Krishnamurthy
N.
Venkataramani,and
R.
Garg
S.P.
: Mater. Res. Bu/1. , 1979 , 14 , 993 .
211.
Enstrom
R. E.
Hanak
J. J.
Gullen
G. W.
: RCA Rev. , 1970 ,13 , 702 .
212.
Decroly
C.
Winand:
R.
J. Less-Common 240. Met. ,1964 ,6 , 132 .
213.
Sayce
I. G.
: in 'Advances in extractive metallurgy and refining ', (ed.
Jones
M. J.
),241 . 241 ; 1972 , London , In stitution of Mining and Metallurgy .
214.
Hamblyn
S. M.L.
: Min. Sci. Eng ., 1977 ,9 , (3 ), 151 .
215.
Chang
C.W.
Szekely
J.
: J. Met Feb.1982 , 34 ,57 .
216.
Maske
K. U.
Moore
J. J.
: High Temp. Teclmol. , 1982 , 1 , (1 ), 51 .
217.
Bhat
G. K.
: J. Vac. Sci. Technot ., 1981 ,18 , (3 ), 1293.s
218.
MacRae
D. R.
: Paper presented at Office of Technology Assessment Seminar on 'New techniques in steelmaking ', 1979 , 248 . Wa shington , DC .
219.
Durand
J. C.
Rondot
B.
Montuelle
J.
: Int. Cast Met. J ., June 1976 ,11 .
220.
Gibson
J. O.
Weidman
R.
: Chem. Eng. Prog„ 1963 ,59 , (9 ), 53 .
221.
Gold
R. G.
Sandal
W. R.
Cheplick
P. G.
MacRae
D. R.
: Ironmaking Steelmaking , 1977 , 250 . 4 , (1 ), 10 .
222.
Akashi
K.
Ishizuka
R.
Mutobe
T.
: in 251.'Proc. 4th ICVM' , 1974 , Iron and Steel Institure of Japan et al., Section 3 ,166.252 .
223.
Matsumoto
O.
Saito
M.
: High Temp. Sci ., 1974 ,6 ,135 .
224.
Saito
M.
Matsumoto
O.
: High Temp. Sci ., 1975 ,7 ,167 .
225.
Liang
A.
Munz
R. J.
: 'Ferroniobium production by plasma technology - a technoeconomic assessment ', 2nd World Cong. of Chemical Engineering and 31st Canadian Chemical Engineering Conf. , Montreal, Canada , 1981 , Vol. 3 .
226.
MacRae
D. R.
Gold
R. G.
Thompson
C. D.
Sandall
W.R.
: AIME Electr. Furn. Proc ., 1976 ,34 ,96 .
227.
Williams
L.R.
: J. Inst. Met ., 1956 –57,85,385.259 .
228.
D'Driscoll
W. G.
Miller
G. L.
: J. Inst. Met .; 1956 –57,85,379.260 .
229.
Klopp
W. D.
Sims
C T.
Jaffee
R. I.
: in Ref. 12 , p.106 .
230.
Grala
E. M.
VanThyne
R. J.
: 'Columbium metallurgy ', (ed.
Doughlass
D. L.
Kunz
F. W.
), 139 ; 1961 , New York , Inter science .
231.
Turner
C. J.
Williams
L. R.
: in Proc. 263. 2nd United Nations Int. Conf. on 'Peaceful uses of atomic energy' , Geneva , 1958 , Vol. 6 ,486 .
232.
Williams
L. R.
Heal
T. J.
: in 'Plansee proceedings 1958 ', (ed.
Benesovsky
F.
), 350 ; 1959 , Reutte , Tyrol, Metallwerk Plan see AG .
233.
Zedler
E.
Miller
D.
Wiesner
U.
: Z. Metallkd , 1965 ,56 ,316 .
234.
Kimura
H.
Sasaki
Y.
Uehara
S.
: Trans Natl. Res. Inst. Met ., 1966 ,8 ,15 .
235.
Joly
M. F.
: J. Four. Electr .,1967 , 72 , 81 .
236.
Cumings
R. E.
Cattoir
F. R.
: RI 6506 , US Bureau of Mines , Washington, DC , 1964 .
237.
Argent
B. B.
Milve
G. J. C.
: J. Less-Common Met. , 1960 , 2 , 154 .
238.
Calverley
A.
: Services Electronics Research Laboratory Technical Report No . 80 .
239.
Tedmon
C. S.
Jr
Rose
R. M.
: in 'Electron 270.and ion beam science and technology ', (ed.
Bakish
R.
), 521 ; 1965 , New York , Wiley .
240.
Lawley
A.
: in Proc. 4th Symp. on 'Electron beam technology ', Cambridge, Mass ., 1962 , Atomic Energy Commission,
133 .
241.
Senderoff
S.
Mellors
G. W.
: J. Electroclzem. Soc ., 1965 ,112 ,266 .
242.
Meyerhoff
R. W.
: J. Electrochem. Soc .,1971 , 118 ,997 .
243.
Schultze
K. K.
: J. Met „ May , 1981 ,33 , 33 .
244.
Myers
R. H.
: Metallurgia , 1948 , 38 , (228 ), 307 .
245.
Schmidt
F. F.
et al.: 'Investigations of Ta and its alloys', WADD-TR-59-13 ,1960 .
246.
Klopp
W. D.
Maykuth
D. J.
Ogden
H.R.
Jaffee
R. I.
: Trans . AIME ,1960 ,218 ,971 .
247.
Miller
G. L.
: in 'Plansee proceedings 1958 ', (ed.
Benesovsky
F.
), 303 ; 1959 , Reutte , Tyrol, Metallwerk Plansee AG .
248.
Owen
E. R.
: 'Production of tantalum in Germany', BIOS Final Report No. 232 , HM Printing Office, London,
1945 .
249.
Berry
B. E.
Miller
G. L.
Williams
S. V.
: 'Production of tantalum in Germany ', BIOS Final Report No. 803 , HM Printing Office , London , 1946 .
250.
Anable
W. E.
RI
7014 , US Bureau of Mines , Washington, DC , 1967 .
251.
Gottwald
H. J.
Krona
K.
Kruger
J.
: Metall , 1969 ,23 ,1284 .
252.
Cattoir
F. R.
Baker
D. H.
Jr
: RI 5630 , US Bureau of Mines , Washington, DC , 1960 .
253.
Sullivan
T. A.
Cattoir
F. R.
: RI 6631 , US Bureau of Mines , Washington, DC , 1965 .
254.
Lei
K. P. V.
Cattoir
F. R.
Sullivan
T. A.
RI
6972 , US Bureau of Mines , Washington, DC , 1967 .
255.
Sullivan
T. A.
: J. Met ., 1965 ,17 , (1 ), 45 .
256.
Lei
K. P. V.
Sullivan
T. A.
: Metall. Trans ., 1971 ,2 ,2312 .
257.
Lei
K. P. V.
Sullivan
T. A.
: RI 7036 , US Bureau of Mines , Washington, DC , 1967 .
258.
Lei
K. P. V.
Sullivan
T. A.
: J. Less-Comm. Met ., 1968 ,14 ,145 .
259.
Van Arkel
A. E.
: Metallwirtselzaft , 1934 , 13 ,405 .
260.
Nash
J. W.
Ogden
H. R.
Durtschi
R. E.
Campbell
I. E.
: J. Eleclrochem. Soc ., 1953 , 100 ,272 .
261.
Carlson
O. N.
Owen
C. V.
. : J. Electrochem. Soc. , 1961 ,108 , 88 .
262.
Wernick
J. H.
Dorsi
D.
Byrnes
J. J.
: J. Electrochem. Soc 1959 ,106 ,245 .
263.
Reed
R. E.
: J. Vac. Sci. Technol .,1970 ,7 , S105 .
264.
Dressers
J.
Heerachap
M.
Meester
P. De
: Metall , 1971 , 25 , 765 .
265.
Bressers
J.
Creten
R.
Van Holsbeke
G.
: J. Less-Common Met. , 1975 , 39 ,7 .
266.
Schmidt
F. A.
Warner:
J. C.
J. Less-Common Mei. , 1967 ,13 ,493 .
267.
Carlson
O. N.
Schmidt
F. A.
Alexander
D. G.
: Metall . Trans „
1972 , 3 , 1249 .
268.
Peterson
D. T.
Loomis
B. A.
Baker
H. H.
: Metall. Trans ., 1981 ,12A , 1127 .
269.
Carlson
O.N.
Burkholder
H. R.
Martsching
G. A.
Schmidt
F. A.
: in 'Extractive metallurgy of refractory metals ', (ed.
Sohn
H. Y.
et al.), 191 ;1980 , Warrendale , Pa, Metallurgical Society of AIME .
270.
Peterson
D. T.
Clark
R. G.
Stensland
W. A.
: J. Less- Common Met ., 1973 , 30 ,169 .