A History of Metallurgy

Small crucibles were found at Tal-i-Iblis, Iran (late 5th millennium BC). Possibilities of smelting carbonate ore placed in copies of such crucibles were tested by C. S. Smith during trial smelts organised on the site. The operation resulted in the production of small copper nodules. ‘Investigations at Tal-i-Iblis’, (ed. Caldwell R. J. ), 17–20, 336, 174–176; 1967, Springfield, Ill.

Tylecote R. F. et al.; ‘A study of early copper smelting and working sites in Israel,’J. Inst. Metals, 1967, 95, 235

Lupu A. and Rothenburg B. : ‘The extraction metallurgy of the Early Iron Age in the Arabah, Israel’, Archaeologia Austriaca, 1970, 47, 94–95

Steinberg A. and Koucky F. : ‘Preliminary metallurgical research in the ancient Cypriot copper industry’ in: ‘American expedition to Idalion, Cyprus’, (ed. Stager L. E. et al.); 1974, Cambridge, Mass. T. A. Wertime: ‘Reconnaisance expedition in Turkey, 1970 and 1971, Archaeologické rozhledy, 1972, 24(2), 192–193

Wertime T. A. : ‘Man's first encounter with metallurgy’, Science, 1964, 146, 1257-1267; ‘A metallurgical expedition through the Persian desert’, Science, 1968, 159, 927-935; ‘Pyrotechnology: Man's first industrial uses of fire’, Amer. Scientist, 1973, 61(6), 670–682

This order of events seems to supprt Dr Tylecote's analogical view although he writes (p. 40) that the idea of adding iron oxide fluxes and the discovery of smelted iron should not be attributed to Near Eastern people only, even if they had the longest and best experience with copper extraction. I hold just such primitive copper smeters as potential inventors of ironmaking, which is one of the possibilities indicated by Dr Tylecote.

Renfrew C. : ‘The autonomy of the South-East European Copper Age’, Proc. Prehistoric Society, 1969, 1970, 12–47

E. N. C’ ernych:Bounar, une mine de cuivre du IVe millenairedans les Balcans (fouilles de 1971, 1972 et 1974)’, in Russian with a French summary, Sovetskaya archeologiya, 1975, 4, 132–153. Simultaneously, there were explored copper mines of the Chalcolithic Vinda-Planik culture in Yugoslavia, of approximately the same date, see B. JovanoviC: Metallurg!ya eneolitskog perioda Yugoslaviye; 1971, Belgrade, Archaeological Institute

Some authors would still prefer to see independent (though belated) origins of iron technology, e.g., in Central Europe (S. Foltiny: ‘Athens and the East Hallstatt region in cultural interrelations at the dawn of the Iron Age’, Amer. J. Archaeology, 1961, 65, 283–297; W. Kimmig: Seevölk er Bewegung und Urnen-felderkultur’, in Studien aus Alt-Europa I, 244; 1964, Böhlau Verlag Köln, Graz), or in Armenia (among Georgian and Armenian archaeologists, G. E. Aregyan; ‘Drevneysie centry metallurgii, ieleza v zapadnoy Azii i vostanom Sredizemnomore’, Vestnik Yerevanskogo universiteta, 1974, (3), 124–138); and in India (D. Chakrabarti; ‘The beginning of iron in India’, Antiquity, 1976, 50, 114–124). Their conclusions rely on data of differing validity.

Thus the beginning of iron in Greece is put once at about 900 BC, and elsewhere at 1100 BC; similarly in China (400 BC and 600 BC). According to the information available the first iron appears in Greece in the 14th-13th centuries BC; the 12th-llth centuries are marked by iron weapons. A. M. Snodgrass Mark age Greece’, 213; 1971, Edinburgh, University Press) sees a temporary regression about 1000 BC. The Iron Age in terms of using iron in agriculture and civil life and of introducing progressive techniques must have started at about 800 BC. On China see the text. The Luristan iron swords ascribed to c.1100 BC mentioned in context with iron in Iran, can hardly date before 800 BC.

Forbes R. J. : ‘Studies in ancient technology’, Vol. 9, 123–174; 1964, Leyden, Brill

Based on analyses published in: S. Junghans et al.; ‘Kupfer und Bronze in der friihen Metallzeit Europas’, ‘Studien zu den Anfängen der Metallurgic’, 1–11; 1968, Berlin

The steel of Noricum is attested by metallography and discussed in many papers, e.g., 0. Schaaber: ‘Beiträge zur Frage des norischen Eisens’, Carinthia I, 1963, 153, 129–279; Beiträge zur Geschichte des Eisens im alpenländischen Raum, Bericht No. 57 des Geschichtsauschusses des Vereines Deutscher Eisenhiittenleute, Diisseldorf (miscellany of papers). For trade in Norician iron, see R. Egger: ‘Die Stadt auf dem Magdalensberg-ein Grosshandelplatz’; 1961, Vienna, Böhlau's Nachf., (written records)

Pertlwieser M. : ‘Die hallstattzeitliche Höhensiedlung auf dem Waschenberg bei Bad Wimsbach II-Objekte. Werkstätte, Metallanalysen’, Jahrbuch des Oberosterreichischen Musealvereines, 1970, 115, 37–70

Pelet P.-L. : ‘Fer-charbon-acier, une industrie meconnue dans le pays de Vaud’; 1973, Lausanne, Bibliotheque Historique Vadidoise

For the medieval iron industry in West Germany see the standard work by M. Sönnecken: ‘Die mittelaterliche Rennfeuerverhiittung im Märkischen Sauerland; 1971, Miinster; the extent of the field work there is remarkable and covers the transitional period from bloomery hearths to the earliest blast furnaces (Haus Rhade). The metallurgical evaluation of the site mentioned is contained in the late B. Ossann's ‘Rennverfahren und Anfänge der Roheisenerzeugung I-II; 1971, Diisseldorf, Verein Deutscher Eisenhiittenleute. For Scandinavia see, for example, the monograph by I. Serning: ‘Förhistorisk järnhantering i Dalarna’; 1973, Grängesberg. Space precludes references to many other items.

E. Tholander published interesting observations concerning the earliest allusion to this technique made on iron knives from Idalion(see ‘Evidence for the use of the carburised steel and quench hardening in Late Bronze Age Cyprus’, Opuscula Atheniensia (Stockholm), 1971, X-3, 15–22)

The existing bibliography is extensive. One may mention the large assemblages investigated metallographically, e.g., by J. Emmerling (La Tene and early medieval weapons), by J. E. Tomtlund, L. Thalin, and S. Modin (pre-Viking and Viking tools), by B. A. Sramko et al. ( Scythian iron finds), by F. K. Naumann, D. Horstmann, and R. Pusch (Medieval irons), by J. Stankus (east Baltic early medieval objects), and especially by B. A. Koldin, who started large-scale investigations of early medieval Russian artefacts in 1953, and found many successors in his country and abroad.

Tylecote R. F. and Thomsen R. : ‘The segregation and surface-enrichment of arsenic and phosphorus in early artefacts’, Archaeometry, 1973, 15, 193–198

Barnard N. and Tamotsu S. : ‘Metallurgical remains of Ancient China’; 1975, Tokyo, Nichiosha

Terechova N. N. : ‘Technologiya Cugunnoliteynogo proizvodstva u dreimych Mongolov’, Sovetskaya archaeologiya, 1974, 1, 69–78; the artefacts have elevated P and S contents, indicating mineral fuel. A. M. Efimova: ‘Cernaya metallurgiya goroda Bolgara’, in: Materialy i issledovaniya pa archaeologii SSSR, 61, 306–310; 1958, Moscow

Efimova A M. : ‘Cernaya metallurgiya goroda Bolgara’, in: Materialy i issledovaniya pa archaeologii SSSR, 61, 306, 1958, Moscow