Abstract
A key factor which limits the production speed of the polymer die drawing process is the premature fracture of the material on exit from the die. In this paper, the growth of damage in the material during the die drawing process has been studied using a combination of thermoplastic finite element analysis and structural characterisation by means of scanning electron microscopy and small angle X-ray scattering for the specific case of die drawing of polyoxymethylene. It is demonstrated that special profiled dies offer a more beneficial strain rate distribution than the conventional conical dies and allow higher production speeds to be obtained. Voids grow in the material as a result of the tensile stresses pertaining near the die exit and then, crazes appear from within the material at a critical stress level leading ultimately to final fracture. The results suggest that although the crazes initiate at a critical stress, the extent of crazing at the maximum draw ratio obtained (∼13) is independent of the type of die and hence the stress level. Fracture of the drawn product occurs at different stresses for different die profiles but always at the maximum draw ratio of 13, suggesting that this relates to the limiting extensibility of a molecular network.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Brew
B.
,
Clements
J.
,
Davies
G. R.
,
Jakeways
R.
and
Ward
I. M.
J. Polym. Set B
, 1979 , 17B , 351 –355 .
2.
Tashiro
K.
,
Kobayashi
M.
and
Tadokoro
H.
Macromolecules
, 1977 , 10 , 731 –736 .
3.
Takeuchi
Y.
,
Yamamoto
F.
and
Nakagawa
K.
J. Polym. Set C
, 1984 , 22C , 159 –162 .
4.
Nakamae
K.
,
Nishino
T.
,
Shimizu
Y.
and
Hata
K.
Polymer
, 1990 , 31 , 1909 –1918 .
5.
Capaccio
G.
and
Ward
I. M.
Nature — Phys. Sci.
, 1973 , 243 , 143 .
6.
Jarecki
L.
and
Meier
D. J.
J. Polym. Set B
, 1979 , 17B , 1611 –1621 .
7.
Cansfield
D. L. M.
,
Capaccio
G.
and
Ward
I. M.
Polym. Eng. Set
, 1976 , 16 , 721 –724 .
8.
Clark
E. S.
:
Polym. Eng. Set
, 1974 , 14 , 682 –686 .
9.
Frank
O.
and
Wendorff
J. H.
Coll .
Polym. Set
, 1988 , 266 , 216 –226 .
10.
Fakirov
S.
and
Evstatiev
M.
Polymer
, 1990 , 31 , 431 –434 .
11.
Galeski
A.
:
Prog. Polym. Set
, 2003 , 28 , 1643 –1699 .
12.
Jungnickel
B. J.
,
Bielefeldt
K.
,
Kaufer
H.
,
Leyrer
K. H.
,
Mennig
G.
and
Wendorff
J. H.
‘Solid state forming of polymers’ , (ed.
Bartz
W. J.
), Vol. 71 -91; 1992 , London , Mechanical Engineering Publications .
13.
Ward
I. M.
:
Adv. Polym. Set
, 1985 , 70 , 1 –70 .
14.
Ward
I. M.
:
Plast. Rub. Compos.
, 2004 , 33 , 189 –194 .
15.
Ward
I. M.
,
Coates
P. D.
and
Dumoulin
M. M.
‘Solid phase processing of polymers’ ; 2000 , Munich , Hanser .
16.
Zachariades
A. E.
and
Porter
R. S.
‘High modulus polymers: approaches to design and development’ ; 1988 , New York , Marcel Dekker .
17.
He
S.
,
Van Houtte
P.
,
Van Bael
A.
,
Mei
F.
,
Sarban
A.
,
Boesman
P.
,
Galvez
F.
and
Atienza
J. M.
Model. Simul. Mater. Set Eng.
, 2002 , 10 , 267 –276 .
18.
Laman
N. K.
:
Metallurgist
, 1959 , 3 , 267 –270 .
19.
Mohanraj
J.
,
Bonner
M. J.
,
Barton
D. C.
and
Ward
I. M.
Proc. Inst. Meek Eng. E
, 2007 , 221 , 47 –60 .
20.
Amano
T.
,
Fischer
E. W.
and
Hinrichs
G.
J. Macromol Set B
, 1969 , 3B , 209 –216 .
21.
Andrews
E. H.
and
Martin
G. E.
J. Mater. Set
, 1974 , 9 , 1507 –1516 .
22.
Voigtmar
I.
:
MakromoL Chem. — Macromot Chem. Phys.
, 1974 , 175 , 2669 –2686 .
23.
Brew
B.
and
Ward
I. M.
Polymer
, 1978 , 19 , 1338 –1344 .
24.
Clark
E. S.
and
Scott
L. S.
Polym. Eng. Set
, 1974 , 14 , 682 –686 .
25.
Konaka
T.
,
Nakagawa
K.
and
Yamakawa
S.
Polymer
, 1985 , 26 , 462 –468 .
26.
Coates
P. D.
and
Ward
I. M.
J. Polym. Set B
, 1978 , 16B , 2031 –2047 .
27.
Mohanraj
J.
,
Bonner
M. J.
,
Barton
D. C.
and
Ward
I. M.
Polymer
, 2006 , 47 , 5897 –5908 .
28.
Taraiya
A. K.
,
Mirza
M. S.
,
Mohanraj
J.
,
Barton
D. C.
and
Ward
I. M.
J. Appl. Polym. Set
, 2003 , 88 , 1268 –1278 .
29.
Komatsu
T.
,
Enoki
S.
and
Aoshima
A.
Polymer
, 1991 , 32 , 1988 –1993 .
30.
Mohanraj
J.
,
Morawiec
J.
,
Pawlak
A.
,
Barton
D. C.
,
Galeski
A.
and
Ward
I. M.
Polymer
, 2008 , 49 , 303 –316 .
31.
Takeuchi
Y.
,
Yamamoto
F.
,
Nakagawa
K.
and
Yamakawa
S.
J. Polym. Set B
, 1985 , 23B , 1193 –1200 .
32.
Komatsu
T.
and
Aoshima
A.
J. Polym. Set B
, 1995 , 33B , 179 –187 .
33.
Komatsu
T.
,
Enoki
S.
and
Aoshima
A.
Polymer
, 1991 , 32 , 2992 –2994 .
34.
Westbrook
P. A.
,
Fellers
J. F.
,
Hendricks
R. W.
and
Lin
J. S.
J. Polym. Set B
, 1983 , 21B , 969 –982 .
35.
Dettenmaier
M.
:
Adv. Polym. Set
, 1983 , 52/53 , 57 –104 .
36.
Dettenmaier
M.
and
Kausch
H. H.
Polymer
, 1980 , 21 , 1232 –1234 .
37.
Paredes
E.
and
Fischer
E. W.
Makromot Chem. — MacromoL Chem. Phys.
, 1979 , 180 , 2707 –2722 .
38.
Wendorff
J. H.
:
Prog. Coll. Polym. Set
, 1979 , 66 , 135 –142 .
39.
Wu
J.
:
Polymer
, 2003 , 44 , 8033 –8040 .
40.
Archodoulaki
V. M.
,
Luftl
S.
and
Seidler
S.
Polym. Test.
, 2006 , 25 , 83 –90 .
41.
Duan
Y. F.
,
Li
H. L.
,
Ye
L.
and
Liu
X. L.
J. Appl. Polym. Set
, 2006 , 99 , 3085 –3092 .
42.
Blazynski
T. Z.
: ‘Metal forming: tool profiles and flow’ ; 1976 , London , MacMillan .
43.
Mirza
M. S.
,
Taraiya
A. K.
,
Ward
I. M.
and
Barton
D. C.
Proc. Inst. Meek Eng. E —
, 2003 , 217 , 123 –131 .
44.
Long
S. D.
and
Ward
I. M.
J. Appl. Polym. Set
, 1991 , 42 , 1911 –1920 .
45.
Allison
S. W.
and
Ward
I. M.
Brit. J. Appl. Phys.
, 1967 , 18 , 1151 –1164 .
46.
Olf
H. G.
and
Peterlin
A.
J. Polym. Sci. B
, 1974 , 12B , 2209 –2251 .
47.
Ramsteiner
F.
,
Kanig
G.
,
Heckmann
W.
and
Gruber
W.
Polymer
, 1983 , 24 , 365 –370 .
48.
Jang
B. Z.
,
Uhlmann
D. R.
and
Vandersande
J. B.
Polym. Eng. Set
, 1985 , 25 , 98 –104 .
49.
Duan
D. M.
and
Williams
J. G.
J. Mater. Set
, 1998 , 33 , 625 –638 .
50.
Burford
R. P.
and
Williams
D. R. G.
J. Mater. Set Lett.
, 1988 , 7 , 59 –62 .
51.
Thomas
E. L.
and
Israel
S. J.
J. Mater. Set
, 1975 , 10 , 1603 –1607 .
52.
Chou
C. J.
,
Vijayan
K.
,
Kirby
D.
,
Hiltner
A.
and
Baer
E.
J. Mater. Set
, 1988 , 23 , 2521 –2532 .
53.
van der Wal
A.
and
Gaymans
R. J.
Polymer
, 1999 , 40 , 6067 –6075 .
54.
Friedrich
K.
:
Adv. Polym. Set
, 1983 , 52/53 , 225 –274 .
55.
Narisawa
I.
and
Ishikawa
M.
Adv. Polym. Set
, 1990 , 91/92 , 353 –391 .
56.
Harris
J. S.
and
Ward
I. M.
J. Mater. Set
, 1970 , 5 , 573 –579 .
57.
Argon
A. S.
and
Hannoosh
J. G.
Philos. Mag.
, 1977 , 36 , 1195 –1216 .
58.
Argon
A. S.
and
Salama
M. M.
Philos. Mag.
, 1977 , 36 , 1217 –1234 .
59.
Farrow
B.
and
Ford
J. E.
Nature
, 1964 , 201 , 183 –184 .
60.
Kuksenko
V. S.
and
Slutsker
A. I.
J. Macromot Set B
, 1976 , 12B , 487 –509 .
61.
Prevorsek
D.
and
Lyons
W. J.
J. Appl. Phys.
, 1964 , 35 , 3152 –3164 .
62.
Cumberbirch
R. J. E.
,
Dlugosz
J.
and
Ford
J. E.
J. Textile Inst.
, 1961 , T513, 52.
63.
Plummer
C. J. G.
and
Kausch
H. H.
J. Macromot Set B
, 1996 , 35B , 637 –657 .
64.
Miles
M.
,
Petermann
J.
and
Gleiter
H.
J. MacromoL Set B
, 1976 , 12B , 523 –534 .
65.
Noether
H. D.
and
Brody
H.
Textile Res. 1
, 1976 , 46, 467-478.
66.
Sprague
B. S.
:
Bull. Am. Phys. Soc.
, 1973 , 18 , 345 –345 .
67.
Brady
J. M.
and
Thomas
E. L.
J. Mater. Set
, 1989 , 24 , 3319 –3327 .
68.
Shinozak
D.
and
Groves
G. W.
J. Mater. Sci.
, 1973 , 8 , 71 –78 .
69.
Cherry
B. W.
and
Hin
T. S.
Polymer
, 1981 , 22 , 1610 –1612 .
70.
Pawlak
A.
and
Galeski
A.
Macromolecules
, 2005 , 38 , 9688 –9697 .
71.
Mohanraj
J.
,
Barton
D. C.
,
Ward
I. M.
,
Dahoun J. M
A.
Hiver and C. G'Sell :
Polymer
, 2006 , 47 , 5852 –5861 .
72.
Yoon
H. N.
,
Pae
K. D.
and
Sauer
J. A.
J. Polym. Set B
, 1976 , 14B , 1611 –1627 .
73.
Castagnet
S.
,
Girault
S.
,
Gacougnolle
J. L.
and
Dang
P.
Polymer
, 2000 , 41 , 7523 –7530 .
74.
Mohanraj
J.
,
Barton
D. C.
,
G'Sell
C.
and
Ward
I. M.
J. Phys. IV
, 2006 , 134 , 1231 –1237 .
75.
Dettenmaier
M.
and
Kausch
H. H.
Polym. Bull
, 1980 , 3 , 571 –578 .
76.
Dettenmaier
M.
and
Kausch
H. H.
Coll .
Polym. Set
, 1981 , 259 , 937 –945 .
77.
Miles
M. J.
and
Baer
E.
J. Mater. Set
, 1979 , 14 , 1254 –1256 .
78.
Kausch
H. H.
,
Gensler
R.
,
Grein
C.
,
Plummer
C. J. G.
and
Scaramuzzino
P.
J. MacromoL Set B
, 1999 , 38B , 803 –815 .
79.
Brown
H. R.
and
Kramer
E. J.
J. Macromot Set B
, 1981 , 19B , 487 –522 .
80.
Brown
H. R.
,
Kramer
E. J.
and
Bubeck
R. A.
J. Polym. Set B
, 1987 , 25B , 1765 –1778 .
81.
Pomper
T.
,
Lode
U.
,
Karl
A.
,
Von Krosigk
G.
,
Minko
S.
,
Luzinov
I.
,
Senkovsky
V.
,
Voronov
A.
and
Wilke
W.
J. MacromoL Set B
, 1999 , 38B , 869 –883 .
82.
Tang
M. Y.
,
Fellers
J. F.
and
Lin
J. S.
J. Polym. Set B
, 1984 , 22B , 2215 –2241 .