Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) offers an inexpensive and rapid method for delineating the laterite profiles by acquiring fine-scale data from the ground. In a case study, a GPR survey was conducted at the Weipa bauxite mine in Australia, in which numerous pick points corresponding to the depth to the bauxite/ironstone boundary were acquired from the ground. These pick points were subsequently merged with the available exploration borehole data using four prediction algorithms, including standard linear regression (SLR), simple kriging with varying local means (SKLM), Bayesian integration (BAY), and ordinary co-located cokriging (OCCK). The required structural inputs for the aforementioned algorithms were derived from the modelled auto and cross-semi-variograms. The cross-validation results suggest that the SKLM approach yielded the most robust estimates. The comparison of these estimates with the actual mine floor also indicates that the inclusion of ancillary GPR data substantially improved the estimation quality.
AbzalovMZ and BowerJ.2009. Optimisation of drill grid at the Weipa bauxite deposit using conditional simulation, 7th International Mining Geology Conference, The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne, 247–252.
2.
AhmedS and De MarsilyG.1987. Comparison of geostatistical methods for estimating transmissivity using data on transmissivity and specific capacity, Water Resour. Res., 23, (9), 1717–1737.
3.
ASTM D 5923–96. 2004. Standard guide for selection of Kriging methods in geostatistical site investigation, 443–446, USA, International ASTM.
4.
ASTM D 6432–99. 2005. Standard guide for using the surface ground penetrating radar method for subsurface investigation, 984–1000, West Conshohocken, PA, ASTM International.
5.
BakerGS, JordanTE and PardyJ.2007. An introduction to ground penetrating radar (GPR), in Stratigraphic analysis using GPR, (eds. BakerGS. and JolH M), 1–18, Geological Society of America.
6.
BardossyA, BogardiI and KellyWE. 1986. Geostatistical analysis of geoelectric estimates for specific capacity, J. Hydrol., 84, (1–2), 81–95.
7.
BardossyG and AlevaGJJ. 1990. Lateritic bauxites, Amsterdam, Oxford, New York, Tokyo, Elsevier.
8.
Barsottelli-BotelhoMA and LuizJG. 2011. Using GPR to detect bauxite horizons in laterite deposits of Amazon Basin, Brazil, 73rd European Association of Geoscientists and Engineers, Vienna, Austria.
9.
BourennaneH and KingD.2003. Using multiple external drifts to estimate a soil variable, Geoderma, 114, 1–18.
10.
CampbellG.1994. Geophysical contribution to mine development planning-a risk reduction approach, 15th CMMI Congress, (ed. C. R. Anhaeusser), Johannesburg, The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 283–325.
11.
ChihiH, GalliA, RavenneC, TessonM and de MarsilyG.2000. Estimating the depth of stratigraphic units from marine seismic profiles using nonstationary geostatistics, Nat. Resour. Res., 9, (1), 77–95.
12.
ChilesPJ and DelfinerP.1999. Geostatistics modelling spatial uncertainty, New York, John Wiley & Sons.
13.
CressieN.1993. Statistics for spatial data, New York, Wiley.
14.
DavisJC. 2002. Statistics and data analysis in geology, New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto, Singapore, Wiley.
15.
DavisJL and AnnanAP. 1989. Ground-penetrating radar for high-resolution mapping of soil and rock stratigraphy, Geol. Prospect., 37, 531–551.
16.
DowdPA. 1997. Geostatistical characterisation of three-dimensional spatial heterogeneity of rock properties at Sellafield, Trans. Inst. Min. Metall., Sect. A, 106, 133–147.
17.
DowdPA and Pardo-IguzquizaE.2006. Core-log integration: optimal geostatistical signal reconstruction from secondary information, Trans. Inst. Min. Metall. B, 115, (2), 59–70.
18.
DoyenPM. 1988. Porosity from seismic data: a geostatistical approach, Geophysics, 53, (10), 1263–1275.
19.
DoyenPM, den BoerLD and PilletWR. 1996. Seismic porosity mapping in the Ekofisk field using a new form of collocated cokriging, Soc. Pet. Eng., 36498, 21–30.
20.
EggletonRA. 2001. The regolith glossary, Surficial geology, soils and landscapes, Canberra, Cooperative Research Centre for Landscape Evolution and Mineral Exploration.
21.
EggletonT and TaylorG.1998. Selected thoughts on ‘laterite’, New Approaches to an Old Continent, 3rd Australian Regolith Conference, Kalgoorlie, Co-operative Research Centre for Landscape Evolution and Mineral Exploration, Perth, (eds. TaylorG and PainC), 209–226.
22.
EggletonT and TaylorG.2005. Bioturbation of the Weipa bauxite, in Regolith 2005-ten years of CRC LEME, (ed. RoachI C), CRC-LEME, 83–85.
23.
ErtenO.2012. Profiling and mining control to mitigate dilution effect from SiO2 at the base of a bauxite deposit, Doctor of Philosophy, The University of Queensland, Brisbane.
24.
ErtenO, KizilMS, TopalE and McAndrewL.2013. Spatial prediction of lateral variability of a laterite-type bauxite horizon using ancillary Ground-penetrating radar data, Nat. Resour. Res., 22, (3), 207–227.
25.
EvansHJ. 1965. Bauxite deposits at Weipa. Geology of Australian Ore Deposits, 8th Commonwealth Mining and Metallurgical Congress. Australia and New Zealand, The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Melbourne, (ed. McAndrewJ), 396–401.
26.
EvansHJ. 1975. Weipa deposit, Queensland, in Economic geology of Australia and New Guinea, (ed. KnightC L), 959–964, Melbourne, Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.
27.
FallonGN, FullagarPK and SheardSN. 1997. Application of geophysics in metalliferous mines, Aust. J. Earth Sci. Int. Geosci. J. Geol. Soc. Aust., 44, (4), 391–409.
28.
FranckeJC. 2012a. A review of selected ground penetrating radar applications to mineral resource evaluations, J. Appl. Geophys., 81, 29–37.
29.
FranckeJC. 2012b. The role of ground penetrating radar in bauxite resource evaluations, 14th International Conference on Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), Shanghai, China, IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society, 459–463.
30.
FranckeJC and NobesDC. 2000. A preliminary evaluation of GPR for nickel laterite exploration, Proc. 8th Int. Conf. on Ground Penetrating Radar, Gold Coast, Queensland, (eds. NoonD A, StickleyG F and LongstaffD), SPIE-International Society for Optical Engine, 7–12.
31.
FranckeJC and ParkinsonG.2000. The new role of geophysics in nickel laterite exploitation and development, Toronto, Canada, Mining Millennium/PDAC Convention.
32.
FranckeJC and UtsiV.2009. Advances in long-range GPR systems and their applications to mineral exploration, geotechnical and static correction problems, First Break, 27, 85–93.
33.
GoovaertsP.1997. Geostatistics for natural resource evaluation, New York, Oxford University Press.
34.
GoovaertsP.1999. Geostatistics in soil science: state-of-the-art and perspectives, Geoderma, 89, 1–45.
35.
GoovaertsP.2000. Geostatistical approaches for incorporating elevation into the spatial interpolation of rainfall, J. Hydrol., 228, 113–129.
36.
GoovaertsP and KerryR.2010. Using ancillary data to improve prediction of soil and crop attributes in prediction agriculture, in Geostatistical applications for precision agriculture, (ed. OliverM A), 167–193, New York, Springer.
37.
IsaaksEH and SrivastavaRH. 1989. An introduction to applied geostatistics, New York, Oxford University Press.
38.
IsbellRF. 1983. Kimberley-Arnhem-Cape York (III), in Soils: an Australian viewpoint. CSIRO division of soils, Melbourne and Academic Press London, CSIRO, 189–199.
39.
JournelAG and HuijbregtsCJ. 1978. Mining geostatistics, London, Academic Press.
40.
JournelAG, KyriakidisPC and MaoS.2000. Correcting the smoothing effect of estimators: a spectral postprocessor, Math. Geol., 32, (7), 787–813.
41.
KayM and DimitrakopoulosR.2000. Integrated interpolation methods for geophysical data: applications to mineral exploration, Nat. Resour. Res., 9, (1), 53–63.
42.
KearyP and BrooksM.1994. An introduction to geophysical exploration, 2nd edn, Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications.
43.
LoughnanFC and BaylissP.1961. The mineralogy of the bauxite deposits near Weipa, Queensland, Am. Mineral., 46, 209–217.
44.
MatheronG.1963. Principles of geostatistics, Econ. Geol., 58, 1246–1266.
45.
MatheronG.1971. The theory of regionalised variables and its applications, Cahiers Cent. Morph. Mat., 5, 211.
46.
McDonaldKB and MandlaR.1993. Bauxite mining and beneficiation by Comalco Aluminium Ltd at Weipa, Old, Aust. Min. Metall. Monogr., 19, 750–753.
47.
McKenzieN, JacquierD, IsbellRF and BrownK.2004. Australian soils and landscapes: an illustrated compendium, Melbourne, CSIRO.
48.
MorganCM. 1996. The geology of the Comalco bauxite resource: a beginner's guide, Comalco Mineral and Alumina Report WTR 96/10.
49.
MorganCM. 1992a. Geology of the spheres at Weipa, 7th International Congress of Icsoba, Icsoba, Balatonalmadi, Hungary, Acad. Yougoslave des Sciences et des Arts, 61–74.
50.
MorganM.1992b. Bauxite geological modelling system, Weipa, Comalco Minerals and Alumina.
51.
MorganM.1993. Methods for improving the control of the bauxite mine floor and their impact on reserve tonnage and grade, Weipa, Comalco Minerals and Alumina.
52.
MorganM.1995. An investigation into the application of ground penetrating radar to the weipa mining operation, Weipa, Comalco Minerals and Alumina.
53.
MyersDE. 1989. To be or not to be … stationary? That is the question, Math. Geol., 21, (3), 343–362.
54.
OdehIOA, McBratneyAB and ChittleboroughDJ. 1995. Further results on prediction of soil properties from terrain attributes: heterotopic cokriging and regression-kriging, Geoderma, 67, 215–226.
55.
Pardo-IguzquizaE and DowdPA. 1998. The second-order stationary universal Kriging model revisited, Math. Geol., 30, (4), 347–377.
56.
RivoirardJ.2001. Which models for collocated cokriging?Math. Geol., 33, (2), 117–131.
57.
SchaapAD. 1990. Weipa kaolin and bauxite deposits, in Geology of the mineral deposits of Australia and Papua New Guinea, (ed. HughesF E), 1669–1673, The Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.
58.
SinghNK. 2007. Ground penetrating radar (GPR) ‘mineral base profiling and orebody optimisation’. The 6th International Heavy Minerals Conference ‘Back to Basics’. The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, Hluhluwe, South Africa, 179–182.
59.
TaylorG and EggletonT.2004. ‘Little Balls’The origin of the Weipa bauxite, in Regolith 2004, (ed. RoachI C), Caberran, CRC LEME, 350–354.
60.
TaylorG, EggletonRA, FosterLD and MorganCM. 2008a. Landscapes and regolith of Weipa, northern Australia, Aust. J. Earth Sci., 55, 3–16.
61.
TaylorG, EggletonRA, FosterLD, TilleyDB, GleuherML and MorganCM. 2008b. Nature of the Weipa bauxite deposit, northern Australia, Aust. J. Earth Sci., 55, 45–70.
WackernagelH, PetitgasY and TouffaitY.1989. Overview of methods for coregionalisation analysis, in Geostatistics, (ed. M. Armstrong), 409–420, Dordrecht, Kluwer Academic Publishers.
64.
WattsA.1997. Exploring for nickel in the 90s, or ‘Til depth us do part’. Exploration 97: Fourth Decennial International Conference on Mineral Exploration, Toronto, Canada.
65.
WebsterR and OliverMA. 2007. Geostatistics for environmental scientists, England, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
66.
XuW, TranTT, SrivastavaRM and JournelAG. 1992. Integrating seismic data in reservoir modelling: the collocated cokriging alternative, 67th Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Society of Petroleum Engineers, Washington, DC.
67.
YamamotoJK. 2008. Estimation or simulation? That is the question, Comput. Geosci., 12, 573–591.
