Abstract
To meet the demands of the National Ignition Facility for a large number of half-metre scale, high quality crystals of KH2PO4 (KDP) and KD2PO4 (DKDP), the Laser Program at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory has pursued a major effort to develop a method for growing these crystals at high rates. This effort has resulted in a production technology capable of producing half-metre boules at 5 to 10 times the rates previously employed and a technique for applying antireflection coatings to crystal plates cut from these boules. In addition, it has led to quantification of the connection between growth defects and optical performance and a greater understanding of the physics of KDP growth. Here, the accomplishments of this development effort are described.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
MURRAY
J.
: ‘A walk through the National Ignition Facility’, ICF Quarterly Report, UCRL—LR-105821-97-3, Vol. 7 , 95 –98 , Lawrence Livermore Naitonal Laboratory, Livermore, CA, 1997 .
2.
RASHKOVICH
L. N.
: ‘KDP family of crystals’; 1991 , New York , Adam-Hilger .
3.
Ferroelectrics,
1987 , 71 and 72 .
4.
NYE
J. F.
: ‘Physical properties of crystals’, chap. 13 ; 1985 , New York , Oxford University Press .
5.
EIMERL:
D.
Ferroelectrics, 1987 , 72 , 95.
6.
SMOLSKY
I. L.
ZAITSEVA
N. P.
: in ‘Growth of crystals’, (ed.
Givargizov
E. I.
Grinberg
S. A.
), Vol. 19 , 173 ; 1995 , New York , Plenum Press .
7.
CHERNOV:
A. A.
Soy. Phys., 1961 ,4 , 116.
8.
BURTON
W. K.
CARBRERA
N.
FRANK:
F. C.
Philos. Trans. R. Soc. (London) A, 1951 , A243 , 299.
9.
VEKILOV
P. G.
KUZNETSOV
Yu. G.
CHERNOV:
A. A.
J. Cryst. Growth, 1992 , 121 , 44; 643.
10.
FRANK:
F. C.
Acta Crystallogr., 1951 , 4 , 497.
11.
CABRERA
N.
LEVINE:
M. M.
Philos. Mag., 1956 ,1 , 450.
12.
QIAN
W.
ROHRER
G. S.
SKOWRONSKI
M.
DOVERSPIKE
K.
ROWLAND
L. B.
GASKILL:
D. K.
Appl. Phys. Lett., 1995 , 67, 2284 .
13.
DE YOREO
J. J.
LAND
T. A.
LEE:
J. D.
Phys. Rev. L ett., 1997 , 78, 4462 .
14.
DE YOREO
J. J.
LAND
T. A.
RASHKOVICH
L. N.
ONISCHENKO
T. A.
LEE
J. D.
MONOVSKII
O. V.
ZAITSEVA:
N. P.
J. Cryst. Growth, 1997 , 182 , 442.
15.
HIRTH
J. P.
LOTHE
J.
: 'Theory of dislocations’, 428'429; 1968 , New York , McGraw-Hill .
16.
LAND
T. A.
DE YOREO
J. J.
MARTIN
T. L.
PALMORE:
G. T.
Crystallogr. Rep., 1999 , 44 , 655.
17.
'Landolt'Bornstein tables of numerical data and functional relationships in science and technology’,
(ed.
Hellwege
K.-H.
Hellwege
A. M.
Group III,
Vol. 11 ; 1979 , New York , Springer .
18.
ZAITSEVA
N. P.
SMOLSKY
I. L.
RASHKOVICH:
L. N.
Kristallografiya, 1991 , 36 , 113.
19.
DAM
B.
BENNEMA
P.
VAN ENCKEVORT:
W. J. P.
J. Cryst. Growth, 1986 , 74 , 306.
20.
ZAITSEVA
N. P.
CARMAN
L.
SMOLSKY
I.
TORRES
R.
YAN:
M.
J. Cryst. Growth, 1999 , 204 , 512'524.
21.
DE YOREO
J. J.
WOODS:
B. W.
J. Appl. Phys., 1992 , 73, 7780 .
22.
DE YOREO
J. J.
REK
Z. U.
ZAITSEVA
N. P.
LAND
T. A.
WOODS:
B. W.
J. Cryst. Growth, 1996 , 166 , 291.
23.
DE VRIES
S. A.
GOEDTKINDT
P.
BENNETT
S. L.
HUISMAN
W. J.
ZWANENBURG
M. J.
SMILGES
D. M.
DE YOREO
J. J.
VAN ENCKEVORT
W. J. P.
BENNEMA
P.
VLIEG:
E.
Phys. Rev. L ett., 1998 , 80, 2229 .
24.
DE VRIES
S. A.
GOEDTKINDT
P.
HUISMAN
W. J.
ZWANENBURG
M. J.
FEIDDENHANS'L
R.
BENNETT
S. L.
SMILGES
D. M.
STIERLE
A.
DE YOREO
J. J.
VAN ENCKEVORT
W. J. P.
BENNEMA
P.
VLIEG:
E.
J. Cryst. Growth, 1999 205 , 202.
25.
Yu
S.
. POTAPENKO : J. Cryst. Growth , 158, 346 ; 1998 , 186 , 446.
26.
CORIELL
S. R.
MURRAY
B. T.
CHERNOV
A. A.
McFADDEN
G. B.
J. Cryst. Growth, 1996 , 169 , 773.
27.
EERDEN
J. P. VAN DER
MULLER-KRUMBHAAR:
H.
Electrochim. Acta, 1986 , 31, 1007 .
28.
CABRERA
N.
VERMILEYA
H. A.
: 'Growth and perfection of crystals', 393 ; 1958 , New York , John Wiley/London, Chapman and Hall .
29.
VAN ENCKEVORT
W. J. P.
JANSSEN-VAN ROSMALEN
R.
VAN DER LINDEN:
AK H.
J. Cryst. Growth, 1980 , 49 , 502.
30.
RASHKOVICH
L. N.
MKRTCHYAN
A. A.
CHERNOV:
A. A.
Soy. Phys. Crystallogr., 1985 , 30 , 219.
31.
LAND
T. A.
MARTIN
T. L.
POTAPENKO
S.
PALMORE
G. T.
DE YOREO:
J. J.
Nature, 1999 , 339 , 442.
32.
ROBEY
H. F.
MAYNES:
D.
J. Cryst. Growth, 2001 , 222 , 263.
33.
ROBEY
H. F.
Yu
S.
. POTAPENKO: J. Cryst. Growth , 2000 , 213, 355 .
34.
ROBEY
H. F.
Yu
S.
. POTAPENKO, and K. D. SUMMERHAYS: J. Cryst .
35.
SMOLSKY
I. L.
VOLOSHIN
A. E.
ZAITSEVA
N. P.
RUDNEVA
E. B.
KLAPPER:
H.
Philos. Trans. R. Soc. (London) A, 1999 , 357, 2631 –2649 .
36.
SMOLSKY
I.
DE YOREO
J. J.
LEE
J. D.
LAND
T. A.
RUDNEVA:
E. B.
J. Cryst. Growth, 1996 , 169 , 741.
37.
Yu
H. KLAPPER
. M. FISHMAN, and V. G. LUTSAU: Phys. Status
38.
BROOKS
R.
HORTON
A. T.
TORGESEN.
J. L.
J. Cryst. Growth, 1968 , 2 , 279.
39.
JOSHI
M. S.
PAUL:
B. K.
J. Cryst. Growth, 1974 , 22 , 321
40.
ZAITSEVA
N. P.
RASHKOVICH
L. N.
BOGATYREVA:
S. V.
J. Cryst. Growth, 1995 , 148 , 276.
41.
ZAITSEVA
N. P.
DE YOREO
J. J.
DEHAVEN
M. R.
VITAL
R. L.
MONTGOMERY
K. E.
RICHARDSON
M.
ATHERTON:
L. J.
J. Cryst. Growth, 1997 , 180 , 255'262.
42.
ZAITSEVA
N.
ATHERTON
J.
ROZSA
R.
CARMAN
L.
SMOLSKY
I.
RUNKEL
M.
RYON
R.
JAMES:
L.
J. Cryst. Growth, 197, 911'920. 1999 ,
43.
KNAUSS
K. G.
BOURCIER
W. L.
McKEEGAN
K. D.
MERZBACHER
C. I.
NGUYEN
S. N.
RYERSON
F. J.
SMITH
D. K.
WEED
H. C.
NEWTON
L.
: in 'Scienti. c basis for nuclear waste management XIII', MRS Symp. Proc. 176, (ed.
Oversby
V. M.
Brown
P. W.
), 371'381; 1990 , Warrendale , PA, Materials Research Society .
44.
ROBEY
H.
FLOYD
R.
TORRES
R.
BURNHAM
A.
: 'Impurity leaching rates of 1000 liter tanks', LLNL Report UCRL'ID-133365, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, Feb. 1999 (available online on http://128.115.33.132/uhtbin/cgisirsi/x/0/60/143).
45.
HAWLEY-FEDDER
R.
BIESIADA
T. A.
BURNHAM
A. K.
DEHAVEN
M. R.
FLOYD
R.
III:
H. F. ROBEY
Proc. SPIE, 2001 , 4102 , 152 '161 .
46.
AUERBACH
J.
WEGNER
P. J.
COUTURE
S. A.
EIMERL
D.
HIBBARD
R. L.
MILAM
D.
NORTON
M. A.
WHIMAN
P. K.
HACKEL:
L. A.
Appl. Opt., 2001 , 40, 1404 –1411 .
47.
WOODS
B. W.
YAN
M.
STAGGS
M.
ZAITSEVA
N.
KOZLOWSKI
M.
DE YOREO:
J. J.
Proc. SPIE, 1997 , 2966 , 20 .
48.
YAN
M.
DE YOREO
J. J.
TORRES
R.
RUNKEL
M.
WOODS
B. W.
ZMTSEVA,
N. P.
HUTCHEON
I.
‘Chemistry and materials science’, Progress Report, UCID-20622-95,12-16, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, 1996 .
49.
STEVENS
K. T.
GARCES
N. Y.
HALLIBURTON
L. E.
YAN
M.
DE YOREO
J. J.
CATELLA:
G. C.
Appl. Phys. Lett., 1999 , 75, 1503 .
50.
FERENEZ
R. M.
HALLQUIST
J. O.
: ‘Nike 3D, a nonlinear, implicit, three dimensional finite element code or solid and structural mechanics — user's manual’, LLNL Report UCRL—MA-105268 Rev. 1, Lawrence Livennore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, 1995 .
51.
YOSHIDA
H.
JITSUNO
T.
FUJITA
H.
NAKATSUKA
M.
YOSHEVIURA
M.
SASAKI
T.
YOSHIDA
K.
Appl. Phys. B ., 2000 , 70 , 195 –201 .
52.
HUE
J.
GARREC
P.
DIJON
J.
LYAN:
P.
Proc. SPIE, 2714 , 90 –100 .
53.
SHARP
R.
RUNKEL:
H and M.
Proc. SPIE , 2000 , 3902 , 361 –368 .
54.
RUNKEL
M.
BURNHAM:
A.
Proc. SPIE, 2001 , 4347 , 408 –419 .
55.
RUNKEL
M.
WILLIAMS
W.
DE YOREO:
J.
Proc. SPIE, 3578 , 322 –334 .
56.
RUNKEL
M.
BURNHAM
A.
MILAM
D.
SELL
W.
FEIT
M.
RUBENCHIK:
A.
Proc. SPIE, 2001 , 4347 , 359 –372 .
57.
FEIT
M. D.
RUBENCHIK
A.
RUNKEL:
M.
Proc. SPIE, 2001 , 4347 , 383 –388 .
58.
SWAIN
J. E.
STOKOWSKI
S. E.
MILAM
D.
RAINER
F.
: in ‘Laser Induced Damage in Optical Materials: 1981’, NBS Special Publication 638, US Department of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, Gaithersburg, MD , 1982 , 119 –128 .
59.
GONZALES
R. P.
STAGGS
M. C.
SINGLETON
M. F.
GEORGE
D.
WEINZAPFEL
C. L.
WEINSAPFEL
S.
: ‘Laser induceddamage in optical material: 1986’, NIST Special Publication 752, US Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 1988 , 206 .
60.
ZAITSEVA
N.
ATHERTON
J.
ROZSA
R.
CARMAN
L.
SMOLSKY
I.
RUNKEL
M.
RYON
R.
JAMES:
L.
J. Cryst. Growth, 1999 , 197, 911 –920 .
61.
YAN
M.
TORRES
R.
RUNKEL
M.
WOODS
B.
HUTCHEON
I.
ZAITSEVA
N.
DE YOREO:
J.
Proc. SPIE, 1997 , 2966 , 11 –16 .
62.
RUNKEL
M.
YAN
M.
DE YOREO
J.
ZAITSEVA:
N.
Proc. SPIE, 1998 , 3244 , 211 –222 .
63.
DEMOS
S. G.
YAN
M.
STAGGS
M.
DE YOREO
J. J.
RADOUSKY:
H. B.
J. Appl. Phys., 1999 , 85, 3988 –3992 .
64.
DEMOS
S. G.
STAGGS
M.
YAN
M.
RADOUSKY
H. B.
DE YOREO:
J. J.
Proc. SPIE, 1999 , 3578 , 509 –514 .
65.
BURNHAM
A. K.
RUNKEL
M.
HAWLEY-FEDDER
R.
CARMAN
L.
TORRES
R.
WHITMAN:
P.
Proc. SPIE, 2001 , 4347 , 373 –381 .
66.
ATHERTON
L. J.
RAINER
F.
DE YOREO
J. J.
THOMAS
I. M.
ZAITSEVA
N. P.
DE MARCO:
F.
Proc. SPIE, 1994 , 2114 , 36 –45 .
67.
STAGGS
M.
YAN
M.
RUNKEL:
M.
Proc. SPIE, 2001 , 4347 , 400 –407 .
68.
RUNKEL
M.
MARICLE
S.
TORRES
R.
AUERBACH
J.
FLOYD
R.
HAWLEY-FEDDER
R.
BURNHAM:
A.
Proc. SPIE, 2001 , 4347 , 389 –399 .
69.
GONG
H.
SUN,
Y.
u
c.
Proc. SPIE , 1999 , 3578 , 516 –518 .
70.
VYAZOVKIN
S.
FERRIN:
T. L.
Solid State Commun., 2000 113 , 627 –631 .
71.
DEMOS
S. G.
BURNHAM
A.
WEGNER
P.
NORTON
M.
ZELLER
L.
RUNKEL
M.
KOZLOWSKI
M. R.
STAGGS
M.
RADOUSKY:
H. B.
Electron. Lett., 2000 , 36, 566 –567 .
72.
HACKEL
L.
KOZLOWSKI
M.
BURNHAM
A.
WHITMAN
P.
WEGNER
P.
: `NIF fmal optics assembly and 3co optics', National Ignition Facility Performance Review 1999 , (ed.
Hunt
J. T.
), LLNL Report UCRL—ID-138120-99, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, 2000 .
73.
STAVROS
S. G.
NOSTRAND
M. C.
STAGGS
M.
CARR
C. W.
HAHN
D.
KOZLOWSKI
M. R.
SHEEHAN
L.
BATTERSBY
C.
BURNHAM:
A.
Proc. SPIE, 2002 , 4679 , 347 –358 .
74.
THOMAS:
I. M.
Appl. Opt., 1986 , 25, 1481 –1483 .
75.
BRINKER
C. J.
SCHERER
G. W.
: `Sol—gel science', 235 –284 , 787 –833 ; 1990 , San Diego , CA, Academic Press .
76.
AL THOMAS:
I.
Proc. SPIE, 1994 , 2114 , 232 –243 .
77.
FLOCH
H. G.
BELLEVILLE
P. F.
PRIOTTON
J. J.
PEGON
P. M.
DIJONNEAU
C. S.
GUERAIN:
J.
Am. Ceram. Soc. Bull., 1995 , 74, (12) , 48 –52 .
78.
FLOCH
H. G.
BELLEVILLE
P. F.
Proc. SPIE, 1997 , 3136 , 275 –283 .
79.
FLOCH
H. G.
BELLEVILLE
P. F.
Proc. SPIE, 1996 , 2714 , 521 –536 .
80.
WILSON
s. D. R.
J. Eng. Math ., 1982 , 16, 209 –213 .
81.
SCRIVEN
L. E.
: in ‘Physics and applications of dip coating and spin coating’, MRS Symp. Proc. 121 , 717; 1988 , Warrendale , PA, Materials Research Society .
82.
BRINKER
C. J.
FRYE
G. C.
HURD
A. J.
ASHLEY:
C. S.
Thin Solid Films, 1991 , 201, 97 –108 .
83.
BORNSIDE
D. E.
MACOSKO
C. W.
SCRIVEN:
L. E.
J. Appl. Phys., 1989 , 66, 5185 –5193 .
84.
BORNSIDE
D. E.
MACOSKO
C. W.
SCRIVEN:
L. E.
J. Electrochem Soc., 1991 , 138, 317 –320 .
85.
BORNSIDE
D. E.
MACOSKO
C. W.
SCRIVEN:
L. E.
J. Imaging Technol., 1987 , 13, 122 –130 .
86.
III
D. P. BIRNIE
MANLEY:
AL
Phys Fluids, 1997 , 9, 870 –875 .
87.
MEYERHOFER:
D.
J. Appl Phys., 1978 , 49, 3993 –3997 .
88.
BRITTEN:
J. A.
Chem. Eng. Comm., 1993 , 120, 59 –71 .
89.
BOK
H. F.
BIRBARA
P. J.
: ‘Method of meniscus coating’, US Patent 4,370,356, Jan. 1983 .
90.
SCRIVEN
L. E.
: in ‘Physics and applications of dip coating and spin coating’, MRS Symp. Proc. 121, 717 –729 ; 1988 , Warrendale , PA, Materials Research Society .
91.
OZTEKIN
A.
BORNSIDE
D. E.
BROWN
R. A.
SEIDEL:
P. K.
J. Appl. Phys., 1995 , 77, 2297 –2308 .
92.
CAVAZZA
G.
: ‘Method and device for the uniformly even application of a resin coating on a substrate’ , US Patent 5,013,586, May 1991 .
93.
STöBER
AK
FINK,
A.
BOHN
E.
J. Colloid Interface Sci ., 1968 , 26 , 62 –69 .
94.
TAN
C. G.
BOWEN
B. D.
EPSTEIN
N.
J. Colloid Intelface Sci., 1987 , 118, 290 –293 .
95.
SADASIVAN
S.
DUBEY
A.
LI
Y.
RASMUSSEN:
D.
J. Sol—Gel Sci. Technol., 1998 , 12, 5 –14 .
96.
BOGUSH
G. H.
ZUKOSKI:
I. C. F.
J. Colloid Interface Sci., 1991 , 142, 1 –18 .
97.
BOUKARI
H.
LIN
J. S.
HARRIS:
AL T.
J. Colloid Interface Sci., 1997 , 194, 311 –318 .
98.
LEE
K.
LOOK
J.
HARRIS
M. T.
MeCORMICK
A. V.
J. Colloid Interface Sci., 1997 , 194, 78 –88 .
99.
BRINKER
C.
SCHERER
G.
: in `Sol—gel science', 269 –284 ; 1990 , San Diego , CA, Academic Press .
100.
VONG
AL S. W.
SERMON:
P. A.
Thin Solid Films, 1997 , 293, 185 –195 .
101.
VAN HELDEN
A. K.
JANSEN
J. W.
VRIJ:
A.
J. Colloid Intelface Sci., 1981 , 81, 354 –368 .
102.
KESSEH
A.
KEY:
E.
J. Colloid Interface Sci., 1998 , 197, 360 –369 .
103.
ZETTLEMOYER
A. C.
HSING:
H. H.
J. Colloid Interface Sci., 1977 , 58, 263 –274 .
104.
ILER
R. K.
: ‘Silica hydrosol powder’, US Patent 2,801,185, July 1957 .
105.
ILER
R. K.
: The chemistry of silica'; 1979 , New York , Wiley .
106.
CHURAEV
N. V.
SETZER
M. J.
ADOLPHS:
J.
J. Colloid Interface Sci., 1998 , 197, 327 –333 .
107.
SPALLA
o.
KEKICHEFF
R
: J. Colloid Interface Sci ., 1997 , 58, 263 –274 .
108.
ATKINS
D.
KEKICHEFF
P.
SPALLA:
O.
J. Colloid Interface Sci., 1997 , 188, 234 –237 .
109.
WHEELER
E. K.
MeWHIRTER
J. T.
WHITMAN
P. K.
THORSNESS
C.
DE YOREO
J.
AL THOMAS:
I.
Proc. SPIE, 2000 , 3902 , 451 –459 .
110.
WHITMAN
P. K.
: ‘Optics and coatings’, 1999 Laser Program Annual Report, LLNL Report UCRL-138120-99, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, 4–30–4 –44 .
111.
THOMAS
I.
KOZLOWSKI
M. R.
EDWARDS
G.
STANION
K.
FUCHS
B.
BARUCH:
A.
Proc. SPIE, 1992 , 1624 , 137 –148 .
112.
AL THOMAS:
I.
Proc. SPIE, 1997 , 3136 , 215 –219 .
113.
WHITMAN
P. K.
FAIR
J.
ABOUD
R.
BURNHAM
A. K.
FRIEDERS
S. C.
THOMAS
I. M.
THORSNESS
C. B.
: ‘Special issue: Optics technology for the National Ignition Facility’, ICF Quarterly Report, UCRL-105821-99-2, Vol. 9 , 163 –176 , Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, Jan.—Mar. 1999 .
114.
WEGNER
P. G.
: ‘Target chamber optics’, 1987 Laser Program Annual Report, LLNL Report UCRL-50021-87, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, 3–13–3 –16 .
115.
RIGATTI
A. L.
SMITH:
D. J.
Proc. SPIE, 1997 , 2966 , 441 –450 .
116.
CAMPBELL
J. H.
BARKER
C. E.
VAN WONTERGHEM
B. M.
SPECK
D. R.
BEHRENDT
W. C.
MURRAY
J. R.
CAIRD
J. A.
DECKER
D. E.
SMITH
I. C.
: ‘Performance results for Beamlet: a large-aperture, multipass Nd : glass laser’, LLNL Report UCRL-120799, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, 1995 .
117.
GUCH
S.
Jr
HOVIS
F. E.
Proc. SPIE , 1994 , 2114 , 505 –511 .
118.
HOVIS
F. E.
SHEPHERD
B. A.
RADCLIFFE
C. T.
BAILEY
A. L.
BOSWELL:
W. T.
Proc. SPIE, 1994 , 2114 , 145 –153 .
119.
WHEELER
E. K.
MeWHIRTER
J. T.
WHITMAN
P. K.
THORSNESS
C.
DE YOREO
J.
AL THOMAS:
I.
Appl. Phys. A, 2002 , 74, (6) , 813 –823 .
120.
KOZLOWSKI
M. R.
THOMAS
I. M.
EDWARDS
G.
STANION
K.
FUCHS
B.
: `SPIE International Symposium', July 1991 , LLNL Report UCRL—JC-105835, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, 1991 .
121.
RIGATTI
A.
SMITH
D. J.
MITCHELL
G. L.
DIRMYER
J.
SCHMID
A. W.
PAPERNOV:
S.
Proc. SPIE, to be published.
122.
MILLER
E.
LAND
T.
WHITMAN
P.
: ‘Effects of thermal anealing on the chemical composition of potassium dihydro-gen phosphate (KDP) surfaces’, UCRL-142259, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, CA, 2001 .
123.
NELSON
A. J.
VAN BUUREN
T.
LAND
T. A.
MILLER
E.
BOSTEDT
C.
FRANCO
N.
WHITMAN
P. K.
BAISDEN
P. A.
TERMINELLO
L. J.
CALLCOTT:
T. A.
J. Electron Spectrosc. Relat. Phenomen., to be published .
124.
THOMAS
I.
CAMPBELL:
J.
Proc. SPIE, 1991 , 1441 , 294 –303 .