This review of literature highlights the empirical work to date in the area of K-12 distance education and online learning. While research indicates that distance and online learning can be equally effective as compared to more traditional learning environments for many students, there is little empirical evidence to suggest that previously validated face-to-face best practices can be effective in the online environment or if students with disabilities have similarly parallel experiences. Technology/media—the debate as to whether it is a part of instructional design or an inert component of the learning environment seems to be ending as the sophistication of technology changes the very nature of instruction and demonstrates the need for empirically validating practices in this new environment. The potential impact on rural schools and districts is of particular import in light of their often-critical need for access to qualified teachers and advanced coursework for their students. We conclude with considerations for research including lingering questions as well as a call for action on the part of educational researchers.
Allen,M., Bourhis,J., Burrell,N., & Mabry,E. (2002). Comparing student satisfaction with distance education to traditional classrooms in higher education: A meta analysis. American Journal of Distance Education, 16(2), 83-97.
2.
American Federation of Teachers (AFT). (1999). Building one the best, learning from what works: Five promising remedial reading intervention programs. Washington, DC: Author.
3.
Barbour,M.K. (2007). Principles of effective web-based content for secondary students; teacher and developer perceptions. Journal of Distance Education, 21 (3), 93-114.
4.
Barbour,M. K., & Mulcahy,D. (2008). How are they doing? Examining student achievement in virtual schooling.Education in Rural Australia, 18(2), 63-74.
5.
Bernard,R. M., Abrami,P. C., Lou,Y., Borokhovski,E., Wade,A., Wozney,L., et al. (2004). How does distance education compare with classroom instruction? A meta-analysis of the empirical literature. Review of Educational Research, 74, 379-439.
6.
Cavanaugh,C. S. (2001). The effectiveness of interactive distance education technologies in K-12 learning: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Educational Telecommunications, 7(1), 73-88
7.
Cavanaugh,C. S. (2007). Effectiveness of K-12 online learning. In MooreM.G. (Ed.) Handbook of distance education (2nd ed., pp157-168). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
8.
Cavanaugh,C. S., Barbour,M. K., & Clark,T. (2009). Research and practice in K-12 online learning: A review of open access literature. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning10 (1), 1-22.
9.
Cavanaugh,C., Gillan,K. J., Kromrey,J., Hess,M., & Blomeyer,R. (2004). The effects of distance education on K-12 student outcomes: A meta analysis. Naperville, IL: Learning Point Associates.
10.
Chandra,V., & Lloyd,M. (2008). The methodological nettle: ICT and student achievement. British Journal of Educational Technology39 (6), 1087-1098.
11.
Clark,R. E. (1983). Reconsidering research on learning from media. Review of Educational Research, 53(3), 445-459.
12.
Clark,R. E. (1994). Media will never influence learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 43(2), 21-29.
13.
Clark,T. (2007). Virtual and distance education in North American schools. In MooreM.G. (Ed.), Handbook of distance education (2nd ed., pp. 473-490). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
14.
Dawley,L., Rice,K., & Hinch,G. (2010). Going virtual! The status of professional development and unique needs of K-12 online teachers. Boise, ID: Department of Educational Technology, Boise State University. Retrieved from http://edtech.boisestate.edu/goingvirtual/goingvirtual3.pdf
15.
Diaz,D., & Cartnal,R. (1999). Students' learning styles in two classes: Online distance learning and equivalent on-campus. College Teaching, 45(4), 21-35.
16.
DiPietro,M., Ferdig,R. E., Black,E. W. & Preston,M. (2008). Best practices in teaching K-12 online: Lessons learned from Michigan Virtual School teachers. Journal of Interactive Online Learning. 7(1).
17.
Donlevy,J. (2003). Online learning in virtual high school. International Journal of Instructional Media, 30 (2), 117-121.
Elbaum,B., McIntyre,C., & Smith,A. (2002) Essential elements: Prepare, design, and teach your online course. Madison, WI: Atwood Publishing.
20.
Ehrmann,S. C. (1995). Asking the right questions. Change, 27(2), 20-28.
21.
Emeagwali,N. S. (2004) High school students increasingly learning from a distance. Techniques75(5), 14-16
22.
Fisk Natale,C. (2011). Teaching in the world of virtual K-12 learning: Challenges to ensure educator quality. Washington, DC: Educational Testing Service.
23.
Greenberg,G. (1998). Distance education technologies: Best practices for K-12 settings. IEEE Technology and Society Magazine, (Winter), 36-40.
24.
Hill,J. R., Wiley,D., Nelson,L. M., & Han,S. (2004). Exploring research on Internet-based learning: From infrastructure to interactions. In JonassenD. H. (Ed.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers.
25.
Hughes,J. E., McLeod,S., Brown,R., Maeda,Y., & Choi,J. (2007). Academic achievement and perceptions of the classroom learning environment in virtual and traditional secondary mathematics classrooms. American Journal of Distance Education, 21(4), 199-214.
26.
iNACOL. (2011). National standards for quality online teaching. Vienna, VA: International Association for K-12 Online Learning.
Johnston,S. (2004). Teaching any time, any place, and pace. In CavanaughC. (Ed.), Development and management of virtual schools: Issues and trends (pp. 116-134). Hershey, PA: Idea Group, Inc.
Johnson,J., & Strange,M. (2007). Why rural matters 2007: The realities of rural education growth. Arlington, VA: Rural School and Community Trust. Retrieved from http://eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED498859.pdf
31.
Kaffar,B. J., (2006). Exploring the effects of online instructional models on the writing achievement of high school students with and without disabilities (Doctoral Dissertation). University of Nevada, Las Vegas.
32.
Keegan,D. (1996). Distance education technology for the new millennium: Compressed video teaching. ZIFF Papiere.Hagen, Germany: Institute for Research into Distance Education. (Eric Document Reproduction Service No. ED 389 931)
33.
Kozma,R. (1994). Will media influence learning? Reframing the debate. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(2), 7-19.
34.
Machtmes,K., & Asher,J. W. (2000). A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of telecourses in distance education. The American Journal of Distance Education, 14(1), 27-46.
35.
Moore,M. G., & Thompson,M. M. (1997). The effects of distance learning Rev. Ed. (ACSDE Research monograph # 15). University Park, PA: American Center for the Study of Distance Education, Pennsylvania State University.
36.
Morrison,G. R. (1994). The media effects question: Unresolveable or asking the right question. Educational Technology Research & Development, 42(2), 41-44.
37.
Mupinga,D. M. (2005). Distance education in high schools: Benefits, challenges, and suggestions. Clearing House, 78 (3), 105-108.
Okolo,C. M., Englert,C. S., Bouck,E. C., & Heutsche,A. M. (2007) Web-based history learning environment: Helping all students learn and like history. Intervention in School and Clinic, 43, 3-11.
40.
Pape,L. (2005). High School on the web: What you need to know about offering online courses. American School Board Journal192(7), 12-16.
41.
Pape,L., Adams,R., & Ribeiro,C. (2005). The virtual High School: Collaboration and online professional development. In BergeZ. L. & ClarkT. (Eds.), Virtual education, real educators: Issues in online learning. Ottawa, ON: The Canadian Teachers' Federation.
42.
Phipps,R., & Merisotis,J. (1999). What's the difference? A review of contemporary research on the effectiveness of distance learning in higher education. Washington, DC: Institute for Higher Education Policy.
43.
Podoll,S., & Randle,D. (2005). Building a virtual high school: Click by click. T.H.E. Journal, 33 (2), 14-19.
44.
Rice,K. L. (2006). A comprehensive look at distance education in the K-12 context. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 38(4), 425-448.
45.
Roblyer,M. D. (2005). Who plays well in the virtual sandbox? Characteristics of successful online students and teachers. SIGTel Bulletin, 2.
46.
Roblyer,M. D., Davis,L, Mills,S. C., Marshall,J., & Pape,L. (2008). Toward practical procedures for predicting and promoting success in virtual school students. American Journal of Distance Education22 (2), 90-109.
47.
Russell,T. L. (1999). The no significant difference phenomenon. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University, Office of Educational Telecommunications.
Scherer,J. (2006). Special report: Virtual high schools. San Diego, CA: Distance-Educator.com.
50.
Schumaker,J. B., & Lyeria,K. D. (1993). Paragraph Writing Strategy: Instructor's Manual. Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Center for Research on Learning.
51.
Siegle,D. (2002). Learning online: A new educational opportunity for teachers and parents. Gifted Child Today Magazine, 25 (4), 30-33.
52.
Shachar,M., & Newmann,Y. (2003). Differences between traditional and distance education academic performance: A meta-analytic approach. The International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 4(2), 1-20.
53.
Smith,S. J. & Meyen,E. L. (2003). Applications of online instruction: An overview for teachers, students with mild disabilities, and their parents. Focus on Exceptional Children, 35 (6), 1-15.
54.
Straub,C. (2012). The Effects of Synchronous Online Cognitive Strategy Instruction in Writing for Students with Learning Disabilities (unpublished doctoral dissertation.) University of Central Florida, Orlando Florida.
55.
Teaster,P. B., & Blieszner,R. (1999) Promises and pitfalls of the interactive television approach to teaching adult development and aging. Educational Gerontology, 25(8), 741-753.
56.
Tennyson,R. D. (1994). The big wrench vs. integrated approaches: The great media debate. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(3), 15-28
Ullmer,E. J. (1994). Media and learning: Are there two kinds of truth? Educational Technology Research and Development, 42(1), 21-32.
59.
Ungerleider,C., & Burns,T. (2003). A systematic review of the effectiveness and efficiency of networked ICT in Education: A state of the art report to the council of ministers Canada and industry Canada. Industry Canada, Ontario.
60.
U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Technology. (2010). Transforming American education: Learning powered by technology. Washington, DC: Author.
61.
Vasquez,E., & Slocum,T. (2012). The evaluation of synchronous online tutoring for students at-risk of reading failure. Exceptional Children, 78 (1) 221-235
62.
Wang,C., Reeves,T. C. (2007). Synchronous online learning experiences: The perspectives of international students from Taiwan. Educational Media International.44 (4), 339-356.
