Behavioral Strategies for Trauma-Informed Elementary General Music Education for Students With Emotional/Behavioral Disorders: A Review of the Literature

Abstract

Elementary general music teachers encounter challenging behaviors in the music classroom when teaching students with emotional/behavioral disorders (EBD), which require prevention and response. In this article, I reviewed literature on pedagogical strategies and interventions for students with EBD in the elementary general music classroom. The review is organized as follows: (a) introduction and process, (b) overview of trauma, (c) overview of EBD, (d) principles of trauma-informed care, and (e) summary and recommendations. Through this review, I present current knowledge on best practices for understanding and framing the unique behavioral needs of special learners with EBD through a trauma-informed lens.

Keywords

EBD elementary general music interventions special education trauma-informed pedagogy

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Algozzine

Ysseldyke

(2006). Teaching students with emotional disturbance: A practical guide for every teacher. Skyhorse Publishing.

Alisic

(2012). Teachers’ perspectives on providing support to children after trauma: A qualitative study. School Psychology Quarterly, 27(1), 51–59. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028590/

American Orff-Schulwerk Association. (2022). What is Orff-Schulwerk?. https://aosa.org/?s=developmental+approach+in+music+education

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Association.

Armsworth

M. W.

Holaday

(1993). The effects of psychological trauma on children and adolescents. Journal of Counseling and Development, 72(1), 49–56. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6676

Austin

(2002). The voice of trauma: A wounded healer’s perspective. In Sutton

J. P.

(Ed.), Music, music therapy and trauma (pp. 231–259). Jessica Kingsley.

Birch

(2022). Voices from the inside: Working with the hidden trauma narratives of women in custody. In Bradley

Hess

(Eds.), Trauma and resilience in music education: Haunted melodies (pp. 141–156). Routledge.

Bradley

(2022). When music haunts memory: Effects of trauma on music learning. In Bradley

Hess

(Eds.), Trauma and resilience in music education: Haunted melodies (pp. 64–78). Routledge.

Bremner

J. D.

(2002). Does stress damage the brain? Understanding trauma-related disorders from a mind-body perspective. W. W. Norton & Company.

10.

Bremner

J. D.

Randall

Scott

T. M.

Capelli

Delaney

McCarthy

Charney

D. S.

(1995). Deficits in short-term memory in adult survivors of childhood experience. Psychiatry Research, 59, 97–107. https://www.doi.org/10.1016/0165-1781(95)02800-5

11.

Brier

(1995). Predicting antisocial behavior in youngsters displaying poor academic achievement: A review of risk factors. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 16, 271–276. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004703-199508000-00010

12.

Briere

Scott

(2006). Principles of trauma therapy: A guide to symptoms, evaluation, and treatment. SAGE.

13.

Burns

B. J.

Phillips

S. D.

Wagner

H. R.

Barth

R. P.

Kolko

D. J.

Campbell

Landsverk

(2004). Mental health needs and access to mental health services by youths involved with child welfare. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 43(8), 960–970. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000127590.95585.65

14.

Causey

D. L.

Robertson

J. M.

Elam

S. M.

(1998). Characteristics of toddlers and preschoolers exhibiting severe psychiatric disturbance. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 25, 525–531. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022631113688

15.

Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. (2014). Trauma-informed care in behavioral health services (Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series, No. 57). Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (US).

16.

Chapman

D. P.

Whitfeld

C. L.

Felitti

V. J.

Dube

S. R.

Edwards

V. J.

Anda

R. F.

(2004). Adverse childhood experiences and the risk of depressive disorders in adulthood. Journal of Affective Disorders, 82, 217–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2003.12.013

17.

Choi

Lee

M. S.

Lee

(2008). Group music intervention reduces aggression and improves self-esteem in children with highly aggressive behavior: A pilot controlled trial. eCam, 7(2), 213–217. https://doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nem182

18.

Cole

S. F.

O’Brien

J. G.

Gadd

Ristuccia

Wallace

Gregory

(2005). Helping traumatized children learn: Supportive school environments for children traumatized by family violence. Massachusetts Advocates for Children.

19.

Copeland

W. E.

Keeler

Angold

Costello

E. J.

(2007). Traumatic events and posttraumatic stress in childhood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 577–584. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64.5.577

20.

Council for Exceptional Children. (2015). What every special educator must know: Professional ethics and standards. Council for Exceptional Children.

21.

Craig

S. E.

(2008). Reaching and teaching children who hurt: Strategies for your classroom. Paul H. Brookes Publishing.

22.

Cummings

K. P.

Addante

Swindell

Meadan

(2017). Creating supportive environments for children who have had exposure to traumatic events. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26, 2729–2741. https://doi.org/10.1007/210826-017-0774-9

23.

Darrow

A. A.

Adamek

(2016). Behavioral issues in the music classroom. In Blair

D. V.

McCord

K. A.

(Eds.), Exceptional music pedagogy for children with exceptionalities: International perspectives (pp. 154–175). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190234560.003.0008

24.

Eenshuistra

Harder

A. T.

Knorth

E. J.

(2019). One size does not fit all: A systematic review of training outcomes on residential youth care professionals’ skills. Children and Youth Services Review, 103, 135–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2019.05.010

25.

Emmanuel

(2022). Multiple wounds, liminality, and crisis: Exploring arts-based approaches for trauma, PTSD, and grief. In Bradley

Hess

(Eds.), Trauma and resilience in music education: Haunted melodies (pp. 95–109). Routledge.

26.

Erikson

Egeland

Pianta

(1989). The effects of maltreatment on the development of young children. In Cichetti

Carlson

(Eds.), Child maltreatment: Theory and research on the causes and consequences of child abuse and neglect (pp. 647–684). Cambridge University Press.

27.

Farragher

Yanosy

(2005). Creating a trauma-sensitive culture in residential treatment. Therapeutic Community: The International Journal for Therapeutic and Supportive Organizations, 26(1), 97–113. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237112781_Creating_a_Trauma-Sensitive_Culture_in_Residential_Treatment

28.

Felitti

V. J.

Anda

R. F.

Nordenberg

Williamson

D. F.

Spitz

A. M.

Edwards

Koss

M. P.

Marks

J. S.

(1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2019.04.001

29.

Filley

C. M.

Price

B. H.

Nell

Antoinette

Morgan

A. S.

Bresnahan

J. F.

Pincus

J. H.

Gelbort

M. M.

Weisberg

Kelly

J. P.

(2001). Toward an understanding of violence: Neurobiobehavioral conference consensus statement. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology, and Behavioral Neurology, 14, 1–14. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11234904/

30.

Finkelhor

Ormrod

Turner

Hamby

S. L.

(2005). The victimization of children and youth: A comprehensive national survey. Child Maltreatment, 10(1), 5–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077559504271287

31.

Forbes

Parslow

Creamer

O’Donnell

Bryant

McFarlane

Silove

Shalev

(2010). A longitudinal analysis of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and their relationship with fear and anxious-misery disorders: Implications for DSM-V. Journal of Affective Disorders, 127, 147–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2010.05.005

32.

Fox

S. E.

Levitt

Nelson

C. A.

(2010). How the timing and quality of early experiences influence brain development. Child Development, 81(1), 28–40. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01380.x

33.

Frattaroli

(2006). Experimental disclosure and its moderators: A meta analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 823–865. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.6.823

34.

Garrido

Baker

F. A.

Davidson

J. W.

Moore

Wasserman

(2015). Music and trauma: The relationship between music, personality, and coping style. Frontiers in Psychology, 6(977), 1–3. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00977

35.

Glaser

(2000). Child abuse and neglect and the brain—A review. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 97–116. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00551

36.

Henninger

Coleman

(2008). De-escalation: How to take back control in your urban physical education classes. Strategies, 21(3), 11—14. https://doi.org/10.1080/08924562.2008.10590771

37.

Herman

(1997). Trauma and recovery: The aftermath of violence—From domestic abuse to political terror (2nd ed.). Basic Books.

38.

Hess

(2022). Rethinking “bad behavior”: A compassionate response to “acting out” in music education. In Bradley

Hess

(Eds.), Trauma and resilience in music education: Haunted melodies (pp. 19–34). Routledge.

39.

Hess

Bradley

(2022). Conclusion: On resilience. In Bradley

Hess

(Eds.), Trauma and resilience in music education: Haunted melodies (pp. 199–213). Routledge.

40.

Hibbard

S. L.

(2022). Disrupting “what we know too well”: A relational frame for considering trauma in music education. In Bradley

Hess

(Eds.), Trauma and resilience in music education: Haunted melodies (pp. 35–48). Routledge.

41.

Hibbard

S. L.

Price

(in press). Trauma: A compassionate lens for music teaching. In Hendricks

(Ed.), The Oxford handbook of care in music education. Oxford University Press.

42.

Hildyard

K. L.

Wolfe

D. A.

(2002). Child neglect: Developmental issues and outcomes. Child Abuse & Neglect, 26, 679–695. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0145-2134(02)00341-1

43.

Hilliard

R. E.

(2007). The effects of Orff-based music therapy and social work groups on childhood grief symptoms and behaviors. Journal of Music Therapy, 44(2), 123–135. https://doi.org/10.1093/jmt/44.2.123

44.

Hilliard

R. E.

(2008). Music and grief work with children and adolescents. In Malchiodi

C. A.

(Ed.), Creative interventions with traumatized children (pp. 62–80). Guilford Press.

45.

Husain

S. A.

Allwood

M. A.

Bell

D. J.

(2008). The relationship between PTSD symptoms and attention problems in children exposed to the Bosnian war. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 16, 52–62. https://doi.org/10.11771063426607310847

46.

Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 (2004).

47.

Inglis

Clifton

(2013). De-escalation: The evidence, policy and practice. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities and Offending Behavior, 4(34), 100–108. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIDOB-01-2013-0001

48.

Institute on Trauma and Trauma-Informed Care. (2015). What is trauma-informed care?. http://socialwork.buffalo.edu/social-research/institutes-centers/institute-on-trauma-and-trauma-informed-care/what-is-trauma-informed-care.html

49.

Jennings

P. A.

(2019). The trauma-sensitive classroom: Building resilience with compassionate teaching. W. W. Norton & Company.

50.

Jennings

P. A.

Greenberg

M. T.

(2009). The prosocial classroom: Teacher social and emotional competence in relation to student and classroom outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 79, 491–525. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654308325693

51.

Kaikkonen

Kivijärvi

(2013). Interaction creates learning: Engaging learners with special educational needs through Orff-Schulwerk. Approaches: Music Therapy & Special Music Education, Special Issue, 5(2), 132–137. http://approaches.gr/interaction-creates-learning-engaging-learners-with-special-educational-needs-through-orff-schulwerk-markku-kaikkonen-sanna-kivijarvi

52.

Kroll

(2003). Posttraumatic symptoms and the complexity of responses to trauma. Journal of the American Medical Association, 290(5), 667–670. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.290.5.667

53.

Krystal

(1978). Trauma and affects. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 33, 81–116. https://doi.org/10.1080/00797308.1978.11822973

54.

Lang

McInerney

(2002). A music therapy service in a post-war environment. In Sutton

J. P.

(Ed.), Music, music therapy and trauma (pp. 153–174). Jessica Kingsley.

55.

LeDoux

(2002). Synaptic self: How our brains become who we are. Penguin Books.

56.

Levine

P. A.

(1997). Waking the tiger: Healing trauma. North Atlantic Books.

57.

Levine

P. A.

Kline

(2008). Trauma-proofing your kids: A parents’ guide for instilling confidence, joy, and resilience. North Atlantic Books.

58.

Loftus

E. F.

Polonsky

Fullilove

M. T.

(1994). Memories of childhood sexual abuse: Remembering and repressing. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 8(1), 67–84. https://www.doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1994.tb00297.x

59.

Luine

Villegas

Martinez

McEwen

B. S.

(1994). Repeated stress causes reversible impairments of spatial memory performance. Brain Research, 639, 167–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-8993(94)91778-7

60.

Malchiodi

C. A.

(2008). Effective practice with traumatized children: Ethics, evidence, and cultural sensitivity. In Malchiodi

C. A.

(Ed.), Creative interventions with traumatized children (pp. 22–42). Guilford Press.

61.

McCord

K. A.

(2017). Teaching the postsecondary music student with disabilities. Oxford University Press.

62.

McKenzie

Cur

(2005). Predicting violence in a medium secure setting: A study using the historical and clinical scales of the HCR-20. British Journal of Forensic Practice, 7(3), 22–28. https://doi.org/10.1108/1463664620050001

63.

McLaughlin

K. A.

Green

J. G.

Gruber

M. J.

Sampson

N. A.

Zaslavsky

A. M.

Kessler

R. C.

(2010). Childhood adversities and adult psychiatric disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication II: Associations with persistence of DSM-IV disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67(2), 124–132. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.187

64.

Mustard

J. F.

(2006). Experience-based brain development: Scientific underpinnings of the importance of early child development in a global world. Paediatric Child Health, 11(9), 571–572. https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/11.9.571

65.

Pechtel

Pizzagalli

D. A.

(2010). Effects of early life stress on cognitive and affective function: An integrated review of human literature. Psychopharmacology, 214, 55–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-010-2009-2

66.

Perkins

Ascenso

Atkins

Fancourt

Williamon

. (2016). Making music for mental health: How group drumming mediates recovery. Psychology of Well-Being, 6, 11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13612-016-0048-0

67.

Perry

B. D.

(2006). Applying principles of neurodevelopment to clinical work with maltreated and traumatized children: The neurosequential model of therapeutics. In Webb

N. B.

(Ed.), Working with traumatized youth in child welfare (pp. 27–52). Guilford Press.

68.

Pitman

R. K.

(1989). Post-traumatic stress disorder, hormones, and memory. Society of Biological Psychiatry, 26, 221–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3223(89)90033-4

69.

Pollak

S. D.

Cicchetti

Hornung

Reed

(2000). Recognizing emotion in faces: Developmental effects of child abuse and neglect. Developmental Psychology, 36(5), 679–688. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.36.5.679

70.

Putnam

F. W.

(1993). Dissociative disorders in children: Behavioral profiles and problems. Child Abuse and Neglect, 17, 39–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/0145-2134(93)90006-Q

71.

Raine

Brennan

Mednick

S. A.

(1994). Birth complications combined with early maternal rejection at age 1 year predispose to violent crime at age18 years. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 984–988. https://www.doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1994.03950120056009

72.

Reddy

L. A.

de Thomas

C. A.

Newman

Chun

(2008). School-based prevention and intervention programs for children with emotional disturbance: A review of treatment components and methodology. Psychology in Schools, 46(2), 132–153. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20359

73.

Rhodes

A. M.

Schechter

(2014). Fostering resilience among youth in inner city community arts centers: The case of the artists collective. Education and Urban Society, 46(7), 826–848. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124512469816

74.

Robarts

(2006). Music therapy with sexually abused children. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 11(2), 249–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359104506061418

75.

Rolfsnes

E. S.

Idsoe

(2011). School-based intervention programs for PTSD symptoms: A review and meta-analysis. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24(2), 155–165. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20622

76.

Rolvsjord

(2009). Resource-oriented music therapy in mental health care. Barcelona Publishers.

77.

Saperston

(1995). The effect of consistent tempi and physiologically interactive tempi on the heart rate and EMG responses. In Wigram

Saperston

West

(Eds.), The art and science of music therapy (p. 23). Harwood Academic Publishers.

78.

Scaer

(2005). The trauma spectrum: Hidden wounds and human resiliency. W. W. Norton & Company.

79.

Schumacher

(2013). The importance of Orff-Schulwerk for musical social-integrative pedagogy and music therapy ( Litwin

, Trans.). Approaches: Music Therapy & Special Music Education, Special Issue, 5(2), 113–118. (Original work published 1999)

80.

Shonk

S. M.

Cicchetti

(2001). Maltreatment, competency deficits, and risk for academic and behavioral maladjustment. Developmental Psychology, 37(1), 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.37.1.3

81.

Siegel

D. J.

(2003). An interpersonal neurobiology of psychotherapy: The developing mind and the resolution of trauma. In Solomon

M. F.

Siegel

D. J.

(Eds.), Healing trauma: Attachment, mind, body, and brain (pp. 1–56). W. W. Norton & Company.

82.

Smith

T. D.

(2022). Teaching through trauma: Compassion fatigue, burnout, or secondary traumatic stress?. In Bradley

Hess

(Eds.), Trauma and resilience in music education: Haunted melodies (pp. 49–63). Routledge.

83.

Smyth

(2002). The role of creativity in healing and recovering one’s power after victimisation. In Sutton

J. P.

(Ed.), Music, music therapy and trauma (pp. 57–82). Jessica Kingsley.

84.

Sorrels

(2015). Reaching and teaching children exposed to trauma. Gryphon House.

85.

Souers

Hall

(2016). Fostering resilient learners. ASCD.

86.

Stewart

R. W.

Stewart

(2002). See me, hear me, play with me: Working with the trauma of early abandonment and deprivation in psychodynamic music therapy. In Sutton

J. P.

(Ed.), Music, music therapy and trauma (pp. 133–152). Jessica Kingsley.

87.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2014). SAMHSA’s concept of trauma and guidance for a trauma-informed approach. SAMHSA.

88.

Sutton

J. P.

(2002). Trauma in context. In Sutton

J. P.

(Ed.), Music, music therapy and trauma (pp. 21–40). Jessica Kingsley.

89.

Swart

van Niekerk

(2010). Trauma-related dissociation as a factor affecting musicians’ memory for music: Some possible solutions. Australian Journal of Music Education, 2, 117–134. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ916795.pdf

90.

Tedeschi

R. G.

Shakespeare-Finch

Taku

Calhoun

L. G.

(2018). Posttraumatic growth: Theory, research, and applications. Routledge.

91.

Thomas-Durrell

(2022). Unlearning academic music education: How music education erases already-present musical identities. In Bradley

Hess

(Eds.), Trauma and resilience in music education: Haunted melodies (pp. 110–124). Routledge.

92.

U.S. Administration for Children & Families. (2014). Child maltreatment. https://www.acf.hhs.gov/cb/resource/child-maltreatment-2014

93.

van der Kolk

B. A

. (2003). The neurobiology of childhood trauma and abuse. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 12, 293–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1056-4993(03)00003-8

94.

van der Kolk

B. A

. (2005). Developmental trauma disorder: Toward a rational diagnosis . for children with complex trauma histories. Psychiatric Annals, 35(5), 401–408. https://doi.org/10.3928/00485713-20050501-06

95.

van der Kolk

B. A

. (2014). The body keeps the score: Brain, mind, and body in the healing of trauma. Penguin Books.

96.

Venet

A. S.

(2019). Role-clarity and boundaries for trauma-informed teachers. Educational Considerations, 44(2), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.4148/0146-9282.2175

97.

Venet

A. S.

(2021). Equity-centered, trauma-informed education. W. W. Norton & Company.

98.

Whitson

M. L.

Connell

C. M.

Bernard

Kaufman

J. S.

(2012). An examination of exposure to traumatic events and symptoms and strengths for children served in a behavioral health system of care. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 20(3), 193–207. https://doi.org/10.1177/1063426610380596

99.

Winder

(2015). Childhood trauma and special education: Why the “IDEA” is failing today’s impacted youth. Hofstra Law Review, 44(2), 18. https://scholarlycommons.law.hofstra.edu/hlr/vol44/iss2/18

100.

Yun

Y.-B.

Kim

J.-E.

(2013). The effects of the Orff approach on self-expression, self-efficacy, and social skills of children in low-income families in South Korea. Child Welfare, 92(4), 123–158. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24851478/