Geomorphological and Socio-Economic Challenges of Ravine Erosion in India: Evaluating Reclamation Approaches

Abstract

Ravine formation is a significant geomorphological process that contributes to land degradation, particularly in the semi-arid and arid regions. In India, ravine landscapes, especially those found in the Chambal, Narmada and Deccan Plateau regions, have been subjected to severe erosion, leading to the loss of productive land and affecting local communities. Despite several reclamation efforts, the success of these initiatives remains variable, highlighting the complexity of managing ravine ecosystems. This study provides a comprehensive review of ravine formation processes, the factors influencing their expansion, and the effectiveness of various reclamation strategies implemented across different regions. The article draws from both international and national research, with an emphasis on the geomorphological, environmental and socio-economic dimensions of ravine management. Key factors such as soil erosion, deforestation and unsustainable agricultural practices are discussed, alongside a detailed analysis of the policy frameworks and land management practices in India. The study identifies significant gaps in existing research and practices, particularly in the integration of community-based approaches and long-term monitoring of reclamation projects. The aim of this work is to offer a comprehensive understanding of ravine formation and provide policy recommendations that can enhance the effectiveness of future reclamation and management strategies. The findings have implications for sustainable land use and can inform global discussions on soil conservation and desertification processes.

Keywords

Ravine erosion gully formation land degradation reclamation strategies socio-economic impact

Introduction

Land degradation is a significant global environmental challenge, with profound consequences for food security, biodiversity and ecosystem services. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) estimates that around 40% of the world’s land is degraded, affecting about 3.2 billion people globally (UNCCD, 2017). This issue has gained considerable international attention due to its links to increased poverty, food insecurity and climate change impacts (Eswaran et al., 2001; Scher & Yadav, 2001). The causes of land degradation are varied and include physical deterioration, chemical degradation, and, notably, soil erosion by wind and water. Gully and rill erosion, in particular, pose severe challenges, leading to the formation of ravines that can be difficult to rehabilitate (Lal, 2001; Pimentel et al., 1995). These erosional processes are driven by factors such as land-use changes, deforestation, agricultural expansion and climate variability (Pimentel & Kounang, 1998; Vörösmarty et al., 2010).

Ravines, formed by concentrated water flow over sloping land, are often accompanied by gully erosion, a dynamic geomorphological process that exacerbates land degradation in arid and semi-arid regions (Heras & Gallart, 2018; Lal, 2001). The destructive nature of gullies, which can extend from meters to kilometres, often results in permanent changes to the landscape, making land reclamation efforts difficult (Kumar et al., 2018). As a result, gullying is considered one of the most damaging forms of erosion, particularly in regions prone to intermittent but intense rainfall (Pimentel & Kounang, 1998). Numerous studies have focused on understanding the mechanisms that drive gully formation, including the role of topography, lithology and climate (Hessel & Asch, 2003; Morgan, 2005). However, despite decades of research, successful mitigation and rehabilitation measures remain elusive in many parts of the world (Bai et al., 2008).

In the Indian context, ravine and gully erosion are widespread, particularly in the central and northern regions. According to the National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), gullies and ravines affect approximately 25,000 km² across 23 states, including Delhi (NRSC, 2019). The genesis of these landforms in India is influenced by both natural factors, such as the country’s diverse topography and climatic conditions, as well as human activities, like deforestation and unsustainable agricultural practices (Joshi & Kulkarni, 2022; Pani et al., 2022; Raj et al., 2022; Suryawanshi et al., 2023). Major ravine-prone areas, such as the Chambal Region in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, face significant challenges, with depths of ravines reaching over 30 m, severely impacting the local ecosystem and agriculture (Kumar & Pani, 2012; Pani, 2017). Furthermore, the encroachment of ravines due to agricultural reclamation practices is a growing concern, leading to soil erosion, habitat loss and reduced agricultural productivity (Mohapatra, 2022; Pani, 2017; Ranga, 2017).

In India, the first formal assessment of ravine land was conducted by the National Commission on Agriculture (NCA) in the year 1976, which estimated that 3.67 million hectares were affected by ravine formation (National Commission on Agriculture (NCA), 1976). Since then, studies have provided further insights into the causes of ravine and gully formation, which are primarily driven by the topography, geological conditions and hydrological factors (Singh & Dubey, 2002). Periodic remote sensing assessments conducted by the NRSC have shown a decline in ravine areas over time, but these trends vary regionally (NRSC, 2019). Despite these efforts, significant gaps remain in terms of understanding the socio-economic impacts of ravine erosion, particularly concerning its effects on rural livelihoods and food security (Pani, 2017; Ranga, 2017).

Although reclamation initiatives such as check dams, gully plugging and contour bunding have been implemented in many regions, their success has been limited due to the lack of an integrated approach that combines both ecological and socio-economic factors (Pani, 2016). Further, most reclamation strategies have not addressed the underlying drivers of land degradation, such as land-use change and population pressure, which continue to exacerbate gully formation (Joshi & Kulkarni, 2022). Moreover, existing policies often fail to integrate local community needs, resulting in unsustainable land management practices (Pani, 2016). Therefore, a more holistic approach, integrating technical solutions with community-based strategies, is needed to effectively combat gully and ravine erosion in India.

The present study aims to examine the geomorphological processes responsible for ravine and gully development in selected ravine-affected regions of India. It further evaluates the effectiveness of existing reclamation and land management practices adopted in these areas. In addition, the study investigates the socio-economic implications of ravine erosion and reclamation efforts on rural communities that depend on these landscapes for their livelihoods. Based on the geomorphological and socio-economic assessments, the study proposes an integrated framework for sustainable ravine reclamation and provides policy recommendations to improve long-term land management strategies in ravine-prone regions of India.

Bibliographic Methods

The bibliographic search for the articles was carried out through various research platforms such as ResearchGate, Google Scholar, Web of Science and Scopus. The review considers articles published over the period 1960–2025. Records have been identified by using combination of several keywords such as gully, ravines, badlands, erosion, reclamation practices and government reports. The articles were selected based on their primary focus on India’s major ravine zones, addressing various aspects such as geomorphology, erosion rates, spatial extent, socio-economic impacts and reclamation practices. This study has limitations, as it includes only the articles that are published in English, Grey literature, including reports or technical studies that are not indexed in the above-mentioned search platforms, is underrepresented in the study. Although some important textbooks and government reports have been considered in the study. The systematic review procedure adopted for the study has been illustrated through the flow diagram (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Flowchart Depicting the Literature Review and Screening Workflow.

Regional Setting

Ravines are among the most severe manifestations of land degradation in India, predominantly concentrated in four distinct zones: the Yamuna–Chambal (Figure 2(i)), Chota Nagpur (Figure 2(ii)), Gujarat (encompassing the Tapi, Sabarmati, Narmada and Mahi rivers) (Figure 2(iii)), and the Siwalik Foothills in Punjab (Figure 2(iv)) (Ahmad, 1973; Sharma, 1980). These regions have been differentiated based upon their lithological, topographical and climatic characteristics, which combinedly exert a strong control on the landscape and geomorphic processes (Sharma, 1980; Singh et al., 2020c). Among these factors, climate plays a vital role because it regulates rainfall patterns and erosional dynamics. India’s climate is mainly governed by the North-East and South-West monsoon. Annual rainfall in the ravinous zones varies significantly across the regions. In the Chambal–Yamuna region, Madhya Pradesh receives 84–132 cm, Rajasthan around 71–75 cm, Uttar Pradesh 75–82.5 cm, and the Mahi ravines of Gujarat 50–75 cm. In contrast, higher rainfall is recorded in the Siwalik zone (112.5–122.5 cm) and the Chota Nagpur Plateau (112.5–150 cm) (Sharma, 1980). Overall, the distribution pattern indicates an inverse relation between rainfall and ravine erosion, with more intense ravine development generally occurring in relatively lower rainfall regions (Sharma, 1980).

Figure 2.

Major Ravenous Zones of India (i) The Yamuna–Chambal, (ii) Chota Nagpur, (iii) Gujarat (Encompassing the Tapi, Sabarmati, Narmada and Mahi Rivers), (iv) and The Siwalik Foothills in Punjab (‘Based on Sharma, 1980’).

In the northern plains, particularly the Chambal–Yamuna region, ravine formation is extensive due to the region’s geomorphic diversity. This part of the Indo-Gangetic plain is divided into the piedmont, central and marginal alluvial zones, with the latter being the most vulnerable to erosion. It is underlain by soft and fragile Upper Vindhyan Sirbu shales. Due to the lime content in the shales, cementation makes it very hard during the summer. But in the monsoon, water infiltrates the pores of weathered Sirbu shales, which causes headward erosion and the formation of ravines (Sharma, 1980). Severe gully development along rivers like the Chambal, Yamuna, Betwa, Mandakini and Son has led to deeply incised terrains. The Chambal River, in particular, is recognised globally for its highly dissected badland landscape (Joshi, 2014; Ranga et al., 2015a, b) (Figure 3A–3D). In areas like the Tons and Mandakini basins, varying topography, from widely spaced rills to intricate gully systems, reflects differing degrees of ravine intensity (Singh et al., 2020a, b).

Figure 3.

Badland Topography in Banas River Basin (A Major Tributary of Chambal River) (A) Typical Network of Gullies, (B) Swallow Holes (C) & (D) Showing the Network of Rills.

The Deccan Volcanic Province (DVP), formed by massive basaltic flows linked to the Reunion plume event, spans nearly half a million square kilometres (Kale et al., 2020; Krishnamurthy, 2020; Valdiya, 2016). Its surface is dominantly erosional, with limited sediment accumulation except in narrow alluvial stretches and foothill zones. Here, ravines have developed in association with sediment-laden patches across river basins like the Narmada, Tapi, Sabarmati, Mahi and Pravara (Joshi & Nagare, 2013). In the Pravara basin, Quaternary alluvium rests atop Cretaceous–Eocene basalt and is dissected by dense ravine networks (Joshi & Nagare, 2013; Kale & Rajaguru, 1987) (Figure 4A). Similar geomorphic degradation is seen along the southern Narmada tributaries, such as the Saras and Dhamani, and throughout the Tapi basin, where complex gully systems shape the terrain (Deshmukh et al., 2012; Joshi & Kulkarni, 2022) (Figure 4B). The Mahi River flows through a diverse assemblage of rocks ranging from Proterozoic to Quaternary. The older alluvium consists of semi-consolidated sand and silt, calcrete, coarse to fine cross-stratified gravels and others, while the newer alluvium is composed of unconsolidated, slightly weathered silt and sand. The ravines are developing in these younger sediments (Sharma, 1980; Pant & Chamyal, 1990). In the Lower Mahi Valley, ravines are distributed across pediment, alluvial and estuarine zones, with more pronounced development along the left bank near Poicha, Savli and Vasad (Raj et al., 1999).

Figure 4.

(A) Badland Topography in Pravara River Nasin. (B) Undisturbed Parts of the Tapi River Badlands. (C) Gully Erosion After Levelling the Land for Agriculture in the Tapi River Basin (Photo credit: Veena Joshi (Joshi & Nagare, 2013; Joshi & Kulkarni, 2022)).

The Chota Nagpur Plateau exhibits a unique lateritic terrain with sub-hilly topography and gentle to concave slopes, where badland landscapes are locally referred to as the Rarh Plain (Das et al., 2023). The ravinous zone of the Chota Nagpur plateau consists of granites and gneisses. These rocks have prominent jointing because of the tectonic activity. It has impacted the headward erosion of the ravines. The ravines have developed along these joints; due to this, they are very narrow with near-vertical side walls. Their depth is less than in other regions due to the hard lithology (Sharma, 1980). Ganganir Danga in the Garbheta block stands out as a prominent example of this degraded landform (Sarkar, 2019) (Figure 5A and 5B). Beyond this, numerous river catchments in West Bengal, such as Kandaboti, Bakulla, Dulung, Khoai, Silai, Silabati and the Dwarka–Brahmani interfluve, show signs of ongoing gully erosion. These areas have been the focus of extensive geomorphological studies, highlighting both natural and anthropogenic factors contributing to land degradation (Bera et al., 2020; Bhattacharya et al., 2020; Dandapat et al., 2020; Gayen et al., 2020; Ghosh & Guchhait, 2020; Saha et al., 2020; Senapati & Das, 2020; Shit et al., 2020).

Figure 5.

(A) Lateritic Escarpments and (B) Fossil Bed in Garhbeta Badlands of West Midinipur, West Bengal (Photo credit: Arindam Sarkar) (Sarkar, 2019).

The Siwalik foothills zone is the outermost and southernmost range of the Himalayas. The Hoshiarpur portion of the Siwalik range is famous for its ravine topography. This zone comprises predominantly alluvial detrital material, which is derived from the subaerial weathering of the Himalayas. This material was transported by numerous rivers and deposited along the foothills of the Himalayas (Sharma, 1980).

Causes of the Formation of Ravines and Their Erosion Rate

The formation of badlands across India is driven by a combination of natural and anthropogenic factors. These include climatic variability, tectonic disturbances, unsustainable agricultural practices, deforestation, overgrazing and soil characteristics (Kaul, 1962; Haigh, 1984; Bull & Kirkby, 2002; Marzolff et al., 2011). The severity and nature of ravine formation vary across the major ravine-prone regions due to differing intensities and interactions of these contributing factors. In the Deccan region, tectonic uplift during the Early Holocene, particularly along the Narmada-Son Fault, triggered incision and gully development, evidenced by a 40 m rise in the western coastal sea level curve (Chamyal et al., 2002; Rao et al., 1996). Morphometric analysis using the morphological index of erodibility (MIE) in the Narmada and Sher River basins revealed MIE values ranging from 450 to 7,888, signifying varying erosion intensities (Deshmukh et al., 2012). The specific sediment yield (SSY) in the Sher basin ranged from 1,230 to 321 t/km²/yr (Ghosh et al., 2024), while the Yamuna basin presented higher rates, reaching up to 1,600 t/km²/yr (Ghosh et al., 2018). These differences highlight regional variations in erosional dynamics.

Localised tectonic activities have also influenced ravine formation in river basins like the Pravara, where uplift events led to base level drops and enhanced erosion (Joshi & Nagare, 2013). Erosion pins and rainfall simulations in Pravara badlands recorded high soil loss rates, up to 1.79 kg/m²/year and 0.8 km/m² under controlled conditions (Joshi, 2020). Similarly, tectonic trends, particularly Cambay and Aravalli fault alignments, govern ravine orientation in the Mahi basin, where second-order ravines follow NE–SW structures (Bedi, 1978; Raj et al., 1999). Structural control is also evident in the Sabarmati basin, where Quaternary faults have influenced incision depths of up to 80 m (Bhatt & Shah, 2017). In the Chambal–Yamuna region, monsoonal intensification during the Holocene and active tectonics significantly influenced ravine development. Deep incision due to increased discharge and unstable sediments led to aggressive gully expansion (Joshi, 2014; Resmi, 2023; Gupta & Resmi, 2025). Sediment yield studies in this region report values ranging from 560 to 2,625 t/ha/yr across various Chambal sub-basins, with the Lower Chambal exhibiting the highest rates due to a higher gully density (Kumar et al., 2022). Similarly, in Etawah, the average annual soil loss was found to be 18.2 t/ha/yr, peaking above 70 t/ha/yr in steep gully zones (Kumar & Pani, 2022).

In the Chota Nagpur Plateau, climatic factors dominate erosion processes, particularly in areas like Garhbeta, where rainfall-induced fluvial activity has sculpted complex ravenous landscapes (Sen et al., 2004; Ghosh, 2015). A Bayesian weight of evidence (WoE) model was applied in the Silai River basin and classified 65% of gullied land as high or very high susceptibility (Shit et al., 2020). At the Dwarka–Brahmani interfluve, slope thresholds and excess runoff contribute to gully development, with sediment yields ranging from 5 to 13.45 t/ha/yr (Ghosh & Guchhait, 2020). In the Kopai basin, inter-rill and sheet erosion have disintegrated lateritic soils, resulting in high sediment delivery ratios of 0.87–1.01 (Saha et al., 2020). The Kangsbati basin shows spatial contrasts, where the upper reaches, due to lithological vulnerability and high rainfall, record erosion rates up to 226 t/ha/yr, while the lower basin reflects intensified degradation due to agricultural encroachment (Mondal, 2012; Mahala, 2018; Bhattacharya et al., 2020). In the Akarsa basin, factors shift from geological in the upper reaches to land-use-driven in the lower areas. Mapping revealed that nearly 21% of the basin falls under high to very high degradation zones (Senapati & Das, 2020). Other assessments, such as in the Siddheswari River basin, using the soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) modelling, show higher sediment yields in gully-prone areas of the upper catchment (Bera et al., 2020). Similarly, machine learning and analytic hierarchy process (AHP)-based models have been applied in the Bakulla and Dulung basins to delineate gully-prone zones, reinforcing the spatial heterogeneity and complexity of erosional processes in the region (Dandapat et al., 2020; Gayen et al., 2020).

In the Siwalik foothills, gully development is largely controlled by seasonal hydrological processes. In this region, gullies are mostly discontinuous, and their development is closely associated with seasonal drainage channels that become active mainly during the monsoon period. These types of gullies originate with an abrupt head-cut, gradually become shallow towards the downslope, and generally end as a mid-slope alluvium fan (Singh et al., 2020c). The dominance of unconsolidated sediments, combined with high-intensity seasonal rainfall and steep piedmont slopes, facilitates localised but rapid channel incision in this region.

Extension of Ravines

The spread of ravines poses a significant threat to India’s agriculture-based economy, as these erosional features continually encroach upon and degrade fertile land. In recent years, the pressure to cultivate marginal lands along the edges of gullies has intensified, inadvertently accelerating the extension of ravines into previously unaffected areas (Pani & Mohapatra, 2001). Reclamation practices, though well-intentioned, often exacerbate soil erosion by exposing vulnerable surfaces to monsoonal runoff and other erosive forces (Pani, 2017). Temporary measures such as gully blocking and filling offer limited relief, as they fail to address the terrain’s underlying energy dynamics. Without a well-engineered, long-term strategy—such as proper channel diversion—monsoonal waters continue to carve through the landscape, deepening and reactivating gully systems each year (Joshi & Kulkarni, 2022) (Figure 4C). During the rainy season, ravines frequently destroy roads, farmlands and even entire settlements, affecting the livelihood of the local people and raising serious concerns among researchers about the long-term conversion of these regions into ravinous topography (Pani, 2017).

This process is particularly evident in the Lower Chambal Valley, where badland expansion threatens the viability of irrigation infrastructure and arable land. Headward erosion by gullies steadily consumes cultivable terrain, and agricultural development along ravine margins has worsened the issue by destabilising soil structures and promoting renewed gully activity (Pani & Mohapatra, 2001; Pani et al., 2022). In Sabalgarh town spanning Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh, the badland affected area expanded from 35.37% to 38.94% between 1984 and 1998 (Pani & Mohapatra, 2001). Similarly, in the Badpura and Chakarnagar blocks of Etawah, Uttar Pradesh, satellite imagery reveals that degraded land increased from 46.6% in the year 1977 to 50.4% in the year 2000. During this period, 30 km² of previously stable plain land transitioned into degraded terrain, indicating a clear transformation of agricultural land into eroded wastelands (Kumar & Pani, 2012).

The situation is equally concerning in western and central India. In Gujarat, national media have reported a 60%–70% increase in ravine-affected areas over the past four to five decades across districts such as Kheda, Panchmahal, Anand and Vadodara, placing agricultural livelihoods under severe threat. In the Tapi River basin, the push to reclaim badland areas since the year 2005 has coincided with widespread gully reactivation. A particularly notable event occurred in the year 2013, when heavy rainfall led to the collapse of a man-made barrier across a gully, triggering extensive erosion and further land degradation (Joshi & Kulkarni, 2022). These examples highlight the complexity and persistence of ravine expansion in India, which severely impacts the local population of the affected area. It also emphasises the need for sustainable watershed management and strategic land-use planning.

Socio-economic Impact of Ravines

In India, ravines have long imposed severe socio-economic constraints on rural communities by rendering fertile land unproductive, accelerating soil erosion, lowering groundwater levels and destabilising agrarian livelihoods, particularly in semi-arid regions such as the Chambal basin. Extensive ravine development has historically reduced net sown area, fragmented landholdings and increased rural poverty due to declining agricultural returns and limited employment opportunities (Pani, 2017). Empirical evidence from the Chambal ravine reclamation programme clearly demonstrates the positive socio-economic outcomes of scientifically planned interventions. The construction of anicuts, combined with afforestation in ravine-affected villages such as Bindwa and Himmatpur, resulted in substantial land reclamation and downstream protection of cultivated fields (Singh et al., 2018). These measures increased the net cultivated area by 13% in Bindwa and 6.5% in Himmatpur, accompanied by a rise in groundwater levels that significantly expanded the irrigated area and cropping intensity by 73% and 45%, respectively. Improved water availability enabled farmers to shift from subsistence crops to high-value vegetables and fodder, strengthening livestock-based livelihoods and increasing annual household incomes by more than threefold, alongside enhanced local employment generation (Singh et al., 2018).

Similar socio-economic benefits of ravine stabilisation and afforestation have been reported from other ravine-affected regions of India, including Gujarat and Rajasthan, where cost–benefit analyses indicate long-term economic gains through increased land productivity, reduced erosion losses and improved livelihood security (Goswami & Singh, 1976; Peri & Khybri, 1975). Studies focusing on rural livelihoods further emphasise that unchecked ravine erosion exacerbates socio-economic vulnerability by constraining agricultural expansion and reinforcing dependence on marginal lands, whereas integrated soil and water conservation measures can reverse degradation trends and promote sustainable rural development (Pani, 2017). At the global scale, similar socio-economic impacts of ravines and gullies are reported from other developing regions, particularly where unplanned land-use and limited institutional capacity intensify land degradation and livelihood losses (Kuhn et al., 2023).

Ravine Land Reclamation

Government Initiatives

Recognising the ecological and agricultural potential of restoring ravine-affected lands, the Indian government has undertaken multiple initiatives since the mid-twentieth century. In the 1950s, three dedicated ravine research centres were established at Vasad (Gujarat), Kota (Rajasthan) and Agra (Uttar Pradesh) to tackle ravine degradation in the Mahi, Chambal and Yamuna basins, respectively. Between 1967 and 1970, the Ravine Reclamation Board was established, accompanied by the launch of a National Ravine Reclamation Policy. Madhya Pradesh (MP), the state most affected by ravines (covering 3.11 lakh hectares), implemented an ambitious land-levelling plan using a bulldozer (Pani, 2016). With this, various reclamation projects such as Chhonda (1955–1956), Bagchini (1955–1956), Nayakpura (1956–1957), Deori Hingona (1959–1965), Jawasa (1962-1970) and Dimini–Chandpur (1967–1968) were implemented by state governments. In the year 1980, an aerial seeding programme with Prosopis juliflora was launched, targeting the creation of 12,009 hectares of forest annually. In 1987–1994, the European Union (EU) funded a project, namely ‘Integrated Watershed Management Program in the badlands of Chambal and Yamuna catchment’. Its aim was to introduce high yield crop varieties and tube well irrigation (Raj, 2022).

Reclamation Processes and Methods

Land reclamation methods vary based on the degree of degradation. For marginal and peripheral lands, practices such as contour and peripheral bunding, land smoothing, safe water disposal structures, construction of farm ponds, pasture development and crop management demonstrations have proven effective (Pani, 2016; Singh et al., 2021). In shallow ravines, vegetative barriers and grassed waterways are commonly used. For more severe degradation—moderate to deep ravines—techniques include gully plugs, composite check dams, bench terracing, bamboo-based bioengineering, trenching and gully easing (Table 1).

Table 1.

Types of Ravines, Reclamation Measures and Their Impact.

Type of Ravines	Reclamation Measures	Impact
Moderate and deep ravines	Construction of earth cum masonry composite check dams in the gully bed	Effective to stop erosion, reduces run off and ultimately helps in groundwater recharge
	Building gully plugs	Reduces runoff velocity, distributes water spread and increases infiltration
	Implementation of gully easing	Helps in reducing the slope of the gully
	Adoption of bench terracing	Decreases runoff and soil erosion
	Bamboo plantation	Decline in runoff increases the quality of the soil
Shallow ravines	Construction of a peripheral bund along the gully head	Helpful in stopping the runoff
	Land levelling across the high slope regions	Increase in infiltration rate and soil moisture
	Use of vegetation barrier	Effective in reducing runoff
	Instituting grassed waterways	Prevents scouring of the channel bed
Peripheral land	Agricultural plantation of bushes and grasses	Enhance infiltration and reduces erosion

Soil fertility restoration is crucial to reclaiming degraded land (Lal, 2015). Due to spatial variation in soil quality from gully heads to beds, site-specific nutrient management based on soil testing is essential. The judicious application of organic manure, biofertilisers, vermicompost and chemical fertilisers is recommended to enhance soil productivity (Singh et al., 2021). These methods ensure sustainable land rehabilitation and support agricultural viability on previously unproductive terrain.

Agricultural Practices and Experimental Research

The success of ravine reclamation in India is strongly supported by previous studies, which have demonstrated significant improvements in the rate of erosion, runoff and ecosystem productivity. Extensive research conducted at the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) centres in Vasad, Kota and Agra has examined various land-use systems for reclaiming ravine-affected zones. A 4-year study at ICAR-Vasad compared sole forestry, sole cropping and agroforestry systems. Results showed agroforestry to be most effective, reducing runoff and soil loss by 19.1% and 37.7%, respectively (Jinger et al., 2022). Another experiment (2016–2023) involving dragon fruit, Malabar Neem and half-moon soil conservation structures demonstrated improved carbon stock and a 1.66-fold increase in fine root biomass under horti-silviculture (Jinger et al., 2024).

Long-term tillage studies have shown that stubble mulch farming tillage (SMFT) and ridge farming tillage (RFT) significantly reduce runoff and soil erosion under rainfed conditions, with no-tillage practices enhancing soil organic carbon and aggregate stability (Kurothe et al., 2014). At the Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute (CSWCRTI), Vasad, vegetative barriers reduced soil loss by 51%–80% and runoff by 20%–50% compared to bare plots (Tiwari & Kurothe, 2006). In western India, combining Sapota and native grasses with soil and water conservation techniques increased both productivity and carbon sequestration (Kumar et al., 2020).

In the Chambal badlands, land-use systems like agri-horticulture, silvipasture and horti-pasture have been evaluated for runoff interception and sediment control. Pasturelands showed the lowest annual soil loss, while silviculture had the highest. Species like Cenchrus ciliaris performed well in conserving water and improving degraded soils (Meena et al., 2023). Bael (Aegle marmelos) has emerged as a promising fruit crop for economic and nutritional gains in these degraded landscapes (Meena & Kala, 2016).

At ICAR-Agra, a bamboo plantation on a 2.8 ha ravine catchment area significantly reduced runoff (from 9.6% to 1.8%) and soil loss (from 4.2 to 0.6 t/ha/yr), while enhancing soil quality and organic matter (Singh et al., 2015). Silvipasture research at the Central Institute for Research on Goats (CIRG), Makhdoom, found that sandbag techniques outperformed bare areas by a factor of ten in reducing erosion, with grasses like Pennisetum and Stylosanthes hamata being most suitable (Trivedi et al., 2002).

Uthappa et al. (2016) emphasised the importance of permanent vegetative cover in Bundelkhand’s ravines using agroforestry with native species like Acacia nilotica and Capparis decidua. Bamboo plantations, according to Pande et al. (2012), are highly viable both ecologically and economically. In the Chambal badlands, fast-growing leguminous species like Karanj (Pangamia pinnata) and Desi Babool (Vachellia nilotica) have demonstrated higher carbon storage in both above- and below-ground biomass (Kala et al., 2022).

Impact and Outcomes

Recent findings (Marzolff & Pani, 2017; Pani, 2016; Ranga et al., 2016) indicate a noticeable reduction in ravine-affected areas, largely due to extensive land levelling and agricultural conversion. However, this reclamation process is costly, as levelled land often has low natural fertility and requires continuous replenishment, especially after the monsoon season (Pani, 2017). Nonetheless, improvements are evident across several regions.

In the Morena district, long-term land use land cover (LULC) studies show a decrease in badland extent from 28.01% in 1974 to 23.97% in 2014 (Pani, 2016). A separate analysis covering 1971–2010 in Morena sub-district found a 20% reduction in badlands, indicating that more land was reclaimed than lost to degradation (Ranga et al., 2016). In a 60 km stretch of the Lower Chambal Valley, around 38 km² of badlands were converted to agricultural use between 1971 and 2015, with an average reclamation rate of 85.85 ha per year (Marzolff & Pani, 2017). These figures highlight the tangible progress of reclamation efforts, while underscoring the importance of cost-effective, sustainable land management strategies.

Summary and Conclusion

Gullies and ravines are widespread across India, particularly in the central and western regions. The development of this highly dissected topography is primarily a result of tectonic movements and intensified monsoons. Despite their prevalence and significant land degradation effects, gully erosion has not been studied in depth within the country. To achieve a comprehensive understanding of gullies and ravines, several key actions need to be taken:

Agroforestry and bamboo plantations offer viable options for managing degraded land. These initiatives not only help in land restoration but also provide employment and income opportunities for local communities, thereby improving their socio-economic conditions.

Currently, the extent of gully- and ravine-affected areas across the country remains unclear. Therefore, it is essential to utilise high-resolution digital elevation models (DEMs) and satellite imagery for more accurate mapping of these regions.

Although reclamation practices can mitigate the impact of this rugged topography, they are costly. Therefore, enhanced financial support and targeted funding mechanisms can play a crucial role in facilitating the restoration of ravine lands.

Reclamation and agricultural initiatives are predominantly concentrated in the Central (Yamuna–Chambal region) and Western (Deccan Province) parts of India. Expanding these efforts to other affected areas through the establishment of dedicated research and extension centres can enhance reclamation and support sustainable agricultural development. Such strategies also hold relevance for managing land degradation in comparable environments globally.

While several studies have been published on sediment yield and erosion rates in the Chota Nagpur Plateau region, such research is scarce in the western regions. Further studies in these areas are essential for a better understanding of soil erosion and loss.

In all affected regions, it has been observed that gullies tend to reactivate during the monsoon season, even after reclamation efforts. This indicates that land levelling and filling of gullies do not provide a permanent solution. Channel flow diversion may offer a long-term remedy, but the complexity of ravinous landscapes makes it difficult to alter the flow paths. Therefore, research is needed to identify engineering solutions that can permanently divert channel flow.

A notable gap in research exists regarding the Siwalik foothills (Punjab) ravine zone. It is essential to focus on this region to gather comprehensive data on local gullies and ravines, which will inform effective management strategies.

By addressing these points, a more sustainable approach to managing gullies and ravines across India can be developed.

Footnotes

Authors Contribution

Both authors have contributed to the design and conceptualisation of the manuscript. Also, both authors have read and approved to the final manuscript.

Acknowledgement

The authors are very grateful to Professor Veena Joshi (Department of Geography, Savitribai Phule Pune University) and Dr. Arindam Sarkar (Department of Geography, Purash Kanpur Haridas College, University of Calcutta) for providing the field photos used in this study.

Declaration of Conflict of Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest regarding the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author Ms. Manisha Gupta received much appreciated financial support from UGC-JRF (NTA Ref No. 190510280131).

ORCID iDs

M. R. Resmi

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