Opinions of Illicit Cannabis Growers on the Industrial Legalization of Cannabis in Ghana: An Exploratory Qualitative Study

Abstract

Background:

With the recent industrial cannabis legalization in Ghana, there is a need to ascertain the perspectives of illegal cannabis growers on the policy discourse to inform its implementation.

Aim:

We explored the opinions of illicit cannabis growers in Hohoe Municipality regarding the legalization of cannabis in Ghana.

Methodology:

An exploratory qualitative study, involving 14 illicit cannabis growers recruited through snowballing technique were interviewed to explore their opinions on the cannabis legalization discourse in the country. The interviews were audio recorded and transcribed verbatim for analysis. Data was analyzed in ATLAS.ti.7.5 and the data were presented using quotes from the participants.

Results:

From the data, 4 main themes and 23 sub-themes were generated. These include, understanding of cannabis legalization (issuance of licenses for cannabis cultivation and trading, free supply of farming inputs, freedom from police harassment and opportunity for industrial use of cannabis), perceived benefits to be derived from cannabis legalization (include community development, improved standard of living, health benefits, high employment opportunities, industrial purposes and foreign trade, liberty to cultivate cannabis, opportunity to use technology and opportunity for training and education), potential legalization challenges (abuse of cannabis, expensive license fees, varying price tag and high rate in school dropout) and policy recommendations (age standardization for the business, setting up of agencies to oversee the cannabis business, decentralize the issuance of license, issuing of license for both cannabis farmers and traders, review the amount for license acquisition and subsidization of farming inputs).

Conclusion:

For Ghana to successfully implement the cannabis legalization bill, policy makers need to ensure that the voices of illicit cannabis growers are considered in the cannabis legalization discourse.

Keywords

cannabis legalization illicit drugs medical cannabis harm reduction substance use prevention

Introduction

In recent years, there has been a growing global advocacy for the commercial legalization of cannabis, with numerous countries considering or implementing changes to their policies on cultivation, trade, and usage.¹ The call gained traction when countries like Australia and certain states in America legalized cannabis use for medical purposes.¹ This shift in regulations has prompted discussions on decriminalizing commercial cannabis activities on a broader scale.^2,3

Proponents of cannabis legalization argue that such legalization would not only boost economies but also mitigate the use of other illicit substances.⁴ They also opine that the existing crackdown on drugs has failed, and harm reduction approaches, including cannabis decriminalization, should be considered .⁵ Moreover, the economic benefits of recreational cannabis legalization are evident, with examples such as Colorado generating substantial tax revenue from sales.⁶ This revenue, if appropriately managed, could be directed toward substance abuse prevention and cannabis use regulation while bolstering the economic fortunes of individuals and states.⁷ It has been argued that industry’s growth could lead to job creation, particularly in regions with high unemployment rates such as sub-Saharan Africa, through cultivation, packaging, and trading.⁷

The trend of cannabis legalization has received credence in Africa, with countries such as Malawi and South Africa softening their stance on cannabis-related activities.⁸ Other countries are contemplating similar moves to tap into the estimated $150 billion global medical cannabis market.⁹ Considering the high unemployment rate on the African content,¹⁰ commercial cannabis legalization could serve as a great avenue for governments to create jobs for the teaming youth. Given the continent’s slow pace of industrialization and the challenges posed by over-reliance on natural resources, alternative sources of income, such as commercial cannabis legalization, could also be explored.¹¹ The need for such alternatives has become even more pressing due to increased rural-urban migration resulting from limited economic opportunities in rural areas to already chocked urban settings.¹²

In Ghana, the high rate of youth unemployment has led to the increase in illegal mining activities in forest reserves and river bodies causing severe environmental pollution, degradation and in some instances, loss of lives.^13,14 Hence, legalizing commercial cannabis activities could serve as an alternative income generation venture which could help to preserve the environment. In response to the clarion call for commercial cannabis legalization, the parliament of Ghana passed the Narcotics Control Commission (Amendment) Bill in July 2023, allowing the Minister of Interior to grant licenses for cannabis cultivation, primarily for medical and industrial purposes, with a 0.3% tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) limit.¹⁵ While recreational cannabis cultivation remains illegal, the amendment replaces prison sentences for possession with fines.¹⁶

In Ghana, illicit cannabis cultivation mostly takes place in the Western, Brong Ahafo, Ashanti the Volta regions.¹⁷ However, the Volta Region has longed been ranked by the Narcotics Control Board as the leader in cannabis use and cultivation in the country.¹⁸ Meanwhile, the Hohoe municipality has been identified as a major cannabis growing hub in the Volta region. For instance, in April 2025, a total of 61 bags of cannabis were confiscated and destroyed by the police in the municipality.¹⁹

Considering the dependence of a section of Ghana’s youth on the illegal cannabis market, there is a need to give audience to these illegal players on the cannabis legalization discourse in the country if a holistic and non-discriminatory policy is to be achieved. Thus, the rationale for this study is grounded in the recognition that illicit cannabis growers represent a critical but often excluded stakeholder group in cannabis policy development. As individuals directly involved in current cultivation practices, they possess first-hand experiential knowledge of production systems, market dynamics, and enforcement challenges. Their perspectives are therefore essential for understanding how legalization policies may be received, implemented, and potentially resisted at the ground level. Moreover, the literature surrounding cannabis-related issues in the country has shrewdly focused on its usage and health effects.^20-23 The few studies conducted on cannabis legalization only focused on its implications for value addition and economic potential, from the researchers’ perspective.¹⁵ Thus, the voice of the illicit cannabis grower is lacking in the literature on cannabis legalization, especially in Ghana. Though similar work has been conducted in South Africa, participants proffered recommendations for policy formulation and implementation were not captured.²⁴

We thus sough to answer the following research questions: (1) What is the understanding of illicit cannabis growers in the Hohoe Municipality on the industrial legalization of cannabis in Ghana? (2) What benefits do illicit cannabis growers in the municipality perceive to gain from the industrial legalization of cannabis in Ghana? (3) What potential challenges do illicit cannabis growers in the municipality perceive to face from the industrial legalization of cannabis in Ghana? (4) What recommendations do illicit cannabis growers in the municipality proffer for the industrial legalization of cannabis in Ghana?

Based on these research questions, we captured the voices of illicit cannabis growers in the Hohoe municipality on the cannabis legalization discourse in the country in terms of their understanding of the policy, its potential benefits, challenges and recommendations to inform the policy’s implementation, following the qualitative reporting guidelines of O’Brien et al.²⁵

The article is structured as follows: an introductory section, that gives the background of the study, the rationale as well as the objectives of the study. This is followed by the methods section which encompasses the study design, population, study setting, researcher characteristics, sampling, ethical issues that underpinned the study, how the data was analyzed as well as how trustworthy was ensured in the study. The results section, which contains the demographic and thematic tables of the results, followed by thematic presentation of the results, proceeds the methods section. The discussion section, the study’s strengths and limitations and the conclusion form the last sections of the article.

Materials and Methods

Study Design

This study employed an exploratory qualitative design using semi-structured interviews to gain an in-depth understanding of the perspectives of illicit cannabis growers in the Hohoe Municipality regarding the industrial cannabis legalization policy in Ghana from May to June 2024. The problem under investigation is not clearly defined within the existing literature, particularly in the Ghanaian context where empirical evidence on the views of illicit cannabis growers remains scarce. While prior studies have largely focused on cannabis use, health effects, and economic implications, little is known about how illicit growers who are directly affected by legalization policies perceive and interpret these regulatory changes.

Given this gap, an exploratory qualitative approach was considered most appropriate, as it allows for the generation of rich, detailed insights into participants lived experiences, perceptions, and expectations.²⁶ This approach is particularly useful when studying complex social phenomena that are not yet well understood and where predefined variables may not adequately capture the depth and nuance of the issue.²⁶ The use of semi-structured interviews further enabled flexibility in probing participants’ responses, thereby facilitating a deeper exploration of emerging themes.

Study Setting

The Hohoe Municipal Assembly, 1 of 18 districts in the Volta Region and 261 in Ghana, gained municipal status in 2008. According to the 2021 population and housing census figures, the region has an estimated population of 114 472.²⁷ Its high population density (312.3 persons/km²) exceeds the regional average and strains infrastructure and services.²⁷ The municipality covers 40 563 hectares, with over half of households engaged in agriculture, primarily crop farming (91.1%), and followed by livestock rearing (47.6%). The distribution of health facilities in the municipality is skewed toward urban areas, disadvantaging rural communities. The former Hohoe Municipal Hospital, now the Volta Regional Hospital, provides tertiary services and serves as the main referral center. The municipality has 14 health institutions organized into 4 sub-municipalities: Alavanyo, Agumatsa, Gbi-South, and Hohoe-Sub.²⁷

Researcher Characteristics and Reflexivity

The research team consisted of 2 undergraduate students (J.M.D and S.T.A), a graduate student (F.D), and a PhD holder (E.M) with extensive experience in qualitative research. The team’s diverse academic backgrounds in public health and varying levels of research experience provided multiple perspectives that enriched data collection and interpretation.

We acknowledged that our disciplinary training and prior exposure to public health and substance use issues could influence the research process, including how participants’ responses were interpreted. To address this, reflexive practices were employed throughout the study. A reflexive journal was maintained, in which the researchers regularly documented their thoughts, assumptions, emotions, and methodological decisions during data collection and analysis.

In addition, the reflexive journal and the interpretations of the first 3 interviews were shared with 2 experienced qualitative researchers for external review. This process helped to identify potential blind spots and biases, which were subsequently addressed in later interviews and during data analysis. Coding and theme development were also conducted collaboratively to ensure that the findings remained grounded in participants’ accounts rather than researcher preconceptions.

Study Population

This study targeted individuals who were actively involved in illicit cannabis cultivation within the Hohoe municipality of the Volta region of Ghana. The focus was on adults 18 years and above who were actively engaged in illegal cannabis cultivation for at least a period of 1 year prior to the study. Individuals who were not directly engaged in illicit cannabis activities within the Hohoe Municipality were excluded.

Sample Size Determination and Sampling Procedure

The saturation method was used to determine the total number of participants recruited for the study. Data saturation refers to the point in the research process when no new information is discovered in data analysis, and this redundancy signals to researchers that data collection may cease.²⁸ Bearing in mind that data saturation in qualitative studies usually occurs within the first 12 interviews,²⁹ we reached data saturation at the 14th interview. Hence, the sample size consisted of 14 illicit cannabis growers. The data collection employed a snowball sampling technique whereby an initial contact (an illicit cannabis grower) was identified who then referred participants to other illicit cannabis growers that were willing to participate in the study until the desired sample size was obtained.

Data Collection Tools and Procedure

Data was collected using a semi-structured interview guide. The guide was structured into 5 sections, covering the background characteristics of participants, their understanding of the bill, perceived benefits, challenges and recommendations. The questions were checked for consistency and accurate transcription of responses by piloting it among 3 participants in the Afadzato South district which shares similar characteristics with the Hohoe municipality. Participants were interviewed separately to gather their in-depth insights on the cannabis legalization discourse. Two of the authors (J.M.D and S.T) were trained on the data collection tool and on qualitative data collection procedures by the project supervisor (E.M). Both English and the Ewe language were used for data collection, based on participants’ educational level and language preference. All interviews conducted in Ewe were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and translated into English by a qualified bilingual translator. To ensure accuracy, 3 participants were contacted to verify selected translated excerpts against the original audio recordings, focusing on whether the meaning and intent of their responses had been correctly preserved. In addition, an independent qualitative researcher reviewed the translated transcripts to assess both accuracy (faithfulness to the original meaning) and readability (clarity, coherence, and linguistic flow in English). Any discrepancies identified during this process were discussed and resolved through consensus to ensure the integrity of the final dataset. Each interview session lasted for an average of 35 minutes.

Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate

Ethical approval for the study was sought from the University of Health and Allied Sciences Research Ethics Committee (UHAS-RECA.4 [018]23-24). A written informed consent was then obtained from the participants before interviews were conducted. The study was conducted in line with the Helsinki declaration on research ethics. The ethical principles of beneficence, non-maleficence, and respect for human dignity were carefully adhered to.

Data Analysis

ATLAS.ti (version 7.5) was used to support data management and analysis. All transcripts were imported into the software, where codes were applied to relevant text segments. The software facilitated the organization and retrieval of coded data, enabling the grouping of similar codes into categories, sub-themes, and broader themes.

The data was analyzed by J.M.D and S.T who were both final year undergraduate students of public health at the time of the study. The Ewe language recordings were transcribed verbatim into English by a qualified language translator at the Hohoe municipal office of the Ghana Education service. Following this, the transcribed files were cross-checked with the audio recordings by 3 participants and an independent qualitative researcher. The fact checks focused on grammar to ensure readability. This was done to preserve the participants’ original ideas or content. The next phase of the analysis involved coding of the transcripts. Guided by Collaizi’s thematic analysis framework,³⁰ the coders first; (a) reduced the texts (b) explored themes, and finally, (c) summarized the texts.

This framework was based on ideas emerging from the transcripts and not formed based on any per-established criteria or ideas. In other words, the coding framework was developed inductively.³¹ Each salient segment was assigned an initial code that summarized its meaning. The coding process was iterative and involved constant comparison, where new data segments were continuously compared with existing codes to refine their definitions and ensure consistency. Similar codes were then grouped into categories based on shared meanings.

These categories were further organized into sub-themes, and related sub-themes were subsequently clustered into broader themes that reflected the underlying patterns within the data. The coding framework was therefore developed inductively from the data rather than being based on pre-existing theories or assumptions.

The second stage comprised identifying sub-themes and themes once all transcripts were coded. Similar basic unit ideas were grouped under sub-themes. Furthermore, similar organizing sub-themes were also grouped under a broad theme. After the coding process was complete, the 2 independent coders met with the project supervisor (E.M) to resolve discrepancies that emanated from the coding process through consensus building. Lastly, following an iterative process of refining and discussing the identified themes, we summarized the themes and supported them with quotes from the transcripts. The results were structured based on the tenets of Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Analytical framework of the study.

Rigor

Following the 4 elements of trustworthiness outlined by Elo et al,³² we ensured rigor through the following means. First, researchers’ field notes, and memos about the data were included in the interview transcripts before analysis to ensure consistency. We also went over the transcripts at least 3 times to guarantee dependability. Coding was done by 2 of the researchers before it was validated by the supervisor and 2 more trusted qualitative researchers. Transferability was achieved by providing a thorough explanation of our methods and techniques and resources used in the study for replication and reference. Moreover, the transcripts were sent back to 3 of the participants for their comments and clarification to ensure that their experiences were appropriately recorded. We also appropriately labeled and maintained an audit trail of the audios, transcripts, field notes, and meetings to promote data integrity at all stages.

Results

Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Participants

The total number of participants for the study were 14 and a majority 13(92.8%) were males. The majority 13(92.8%) aged between 30 and 40 years. All the participants were Christians. Of 14 participants, 10 (71.4%) were married and the majority 10 (71.4%) had secondary education. Half 7 (50.0%) of them were involved in illicit cannabis cultivation for at least 11 years (Table 1 ).

Table 1.

Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Participants.

Background characteristics	Frequency (n = 14)	Percent (%)
Sex
Male	13	92.8
Female	1	7.2
Age
30-40	13	92.8
41-50	1	7.2
Religion
Christian	14	100.0
Marital status
Married	10	71.5
Single	4	28.5
Level of education
Secondary	10	71.4
Tertiary	3	28.6
Years of illicit cannabis cultivation
1-5 y	5	35.7
6-10 y	2	14.3
11 y and above	7	50.0

Thematic Findings

From the data 4 main themes and 23 sub-themes were generated, as presented in Table 2. These include, understanding of cannabis legalization (issuance of licenses for cannabis cultivation and trading, free supply of farming inputs, freedom from police harassment and opportunity for industrial use of cannabis), perceived benefits to be derived from cannabis legalization (include community development, improved standard of living, health benefits, high employment opportunities, industrial purposes and foreign trade, liberty to cultivate cannabis, opportunity to use technology and opportunity for training and education), potential legalization challenges(abuse of cannabis, expensive license fees, varying price tag, and high rate in school dropout) and policy recommendations (age standardization for the business, setting up of agencies to oversee the cannabis business, decentralize the issuance of license, issuing of license for both cannabis farmers and traders, review the amount for license acquisition and subsidization of farming inputs.

Table 2.

Thematic Findings of the Study.

Themes	Sub-themes	Sample quotes
General understanding of cannabis legalization	Giving license for cannabis operation	“Okay, I follow the news so I heard the information from the news and I how I understand the news is that it will be a bit different from the one we are cultivating here [illegally]. License will be required before you can cultivate it.” (Participant 3)
	Supply of farming inputs	“Okay, how I understand it [legalization] is that the government will provide us with things like the seeds, fertilizers and all the necessary resources needed for the farming of cannabis and after harvest they themselves will come and buy it from us.” (Participant 3)
	Freedom from arrest and prosecutions	“I understand it to mean that the government has approved our work. The police will stop worrying us like they do now by following us to the farm and tracing our farms and anywhere we want to carry our goods we will be free to do that so the legalization will be a good thing.” (Participant 2)
	Opportunity for industrial use of cannabis	“Ehh it will help the country as a whole because I know they use cannabis for a lot of things if I am not wrong, things like medicines, sacks and many more. It can help the country to develop.” (Participant 8)
Perceived benefits of cannabis legalization	Community and personal development	“Oh, there will be a lot of benefits. when I left Nsawam in 2009 and came back to the village I could say my village has developed even though they are doing it illegally. You can imagine if they were doing so legally to employ more people?” (Participant 11)
	Improving standard of living	“Right now, the things I am able to do I couldn’t do them when I was a laborer but now, I have done a lot. Such as land but we haven’t built yet, catering for my family everyone is okay now. So, they should legalize it to help is do it commercially.” (Participant 12)
	Health benefits	“There are several health benefits ranging from relieve stress, body fats, curing asthma when the herb is used for tea. It also lowers high blood pressure. cannabis has so many benefits that our weigh the negative, so if they legalize it, some of these illnesses will be over” (Participant 7)
	High employment and increased income	“Okay, like I said before now the world is hard and Ghana is also difficult now there are no jobs for us to do so from my perspective if they legalize it, it means my child can even come and work for someone and that is the work he does.” (Participant 1)
	Industrial purpose and foreign trading	“It will help the country as it is helping other countries such as the Netherlands. We can export some of it to other countries and get more money in return to build the nation for us. There will be a lot of developmental projects such building of schools and hospitals in the country.” (Participant 3)
	Liberty to cultivate cannabis	“Individually, when they legalize it, I will be free from the disturbances of the police, and my personal safety will be assured.” (Participant 7)
	The use of technology to improve production	“Ummhh. . .its [cannabis] legalization will give us the chance to use tractors and other tools to cultivate on a larger scale and make us make more money. The government will also benefit. It is a win-win situation.” (Participant 8)
	Training Sessions for farmers	“That is how it is supposed to be because in everything you do you first need to be trained, because even as a child if you have to start school you will start from Creche before you move on to higher education. But since it is illegal, nobody is training us. So, if it is legalized, we can benefit from such training.” (Participant 8)
Potential challenges of cannabis legalization	Abuse of cannabis	“If it is legalizing freely people will abuse it so if they will legalize it too they have to have terms and conditions, if not it will affect the community and all those who abuse it” (Participant 3)
	Expensive cultivation licenses	“The problems that will arise after the legalization, will be the amount we need to pay for the license and we the young farmers I do not think we will be able to get that amount. They are mentioning around 50 000 cedis for the license and it will affect those of us that do not have money” (Participant 2)
	Varying price tag	“Ehhhmm. . . when it is legalized there will be price challenge because people will try to get market for their goods and that will affect the market. You know everybody loves what is less expensive things so that is when it will affect the business” (Participant 7)
	High rates in school dropout	“Mmmm, so one of the challenges that will occur will be children of school going age may not want to go to school anymore so there should be laws governing the operation of the cannabis” (Participant 8)
Policy recommendations	Age standardization	“Age should also be a factor because, everyone one who started school at the average age by 181 920 they should be able to finish secondary school, so anything belwo18 is underage and should not be allowed to engage in the business” (Participant 1)
	Agencies to oversee cannabis business	“There should also be agencies that will supervise the work, but I think the district assembly should also supervise in term of the tax payment and license renewal they should also see to monitoring of the of the farm and also people should be charged for taxes according to the size of the farm. There should also be checks for those who take the license and also the records of those who will be involved in the business. (Participant 1)
	Decentralize the issuance of licenses	“The government have decentralized everything, including the issuance of licenses because if you look at our paramount chief in the community, he has championed all the governments business in the district.” (Participant 1)
	Issuance of licenses for both growers and traders	“I will also want to suggest that the government should issue the license for both the farmers and the business partners involved in the cannabis farming.” (Participant 1)
	Review of amount for license	“ I would like to tell the government that they should review the amount they mentioned for the license. The amount I’m hearing now is too high. ” (Participant 7)
	Subsidization of farming inputs	“Okay I can say that as they have supported the cocoa farmers all these years if they can do same for us and help we the farmers in the farmer’s association by giving us free fertilizers ever year, it will help” (Participant 3)

Understanding of Illicit Cannabis Legalization

The first theme explored the participant’s understanding of the cannabis legalization bill. Under this theme, 4 sub themes emerged: issuance of licenses for cannabis cultivation and trading, free supply of farming inputs, freedom from police harassment and opportunity for industrial use of cannabis.

Giving License for Cannabis Operations

Most (9) of the participant said they understood the cannabis legalization bill to mean giving them licenses to operate freely. Although participants expressed optimism about obtaining licenses, the policy outlines specific regulatory requirements and eligibility criteria that may limit access, particularly for small-scale or previously illicit growers. The quote below summarizes their views:

“Okay, I follow the news so I heard the information from the news and I how I understand the news is that it will be a bit different from the one we are cultivating here [illegally]. License will be required before you can cultivate it”. (Participant 3)

“I heard we will be given license for us to operate and which we will pay for. I also heard that will change the seed we use now, and they will bring the one from the government”. (Participant 7)

Free Supply of Farming Inputs

Few (5) of the participant said they understand legalization of illicit cannabis cultivation in the form of government providing them with free farming inputs such as fertilizers and seeds. While several participants perceived legalization to include government provision of farming inputs and financial support, the current policy framework primarily focuses on licensing for industrial and medical purposes and does not explicitly guarantee such support, indicating a gap between expectations and policy provisions. The quotes below summarizes their views:

“Okay, how I understand it [legalization] is that the government will provide us with things like the seeds, fertilizers and all the necessary resources needed for the farming of cannabis and after harvest they themselves will come and buy it from us”. (Participant 3)

“I also understand that the government will help us financially to support our farm, also give us fertilizers and all that we need for the farm” (Participant 2)

Freedom From Arrest and Prosecutions

Eight (8) participants also understood the cannabis legalization bill to mean freedom from police harassment, arrests and prosecutions. They believed that they will no longer be worried about being arrested or harassed by the authorities or police and would thus be able to go about their activities freely. However, legalization does not imply unrestricted freedom, as continued compliance with regulatory requirements remains necessary under the policy framework. The quote below summarizes their views:

“I understand it to mean that the government has approved our work. The police will stop worrying us like they do now by following us to the farm and tracing our farms and anywhere we want to carry our goods we will be free to do that so the legalization will be a good thing.” (Participant 2)

“Meaning for now it’s not legalized. So, we are doing it with fear. But when they legalize it, nobody will chase anybody. No police. everybody will be free to do it. Like the way, we have been cultivating cassava, okro and those things. So, when it happens that the legalized it. There will be no fear.” (Participant 7)

Opportunity for Industrial Use of Cannabis

Five (5) participants understood the cannabis legalization bill to mean an opportunity to use cannabis for industrial purposes. They believed it would allow them to legally cultivate and process cannabis for products. The quotes below summarizes their views:

“Ehh it will help the country as a whole because I know they use cannabis for a lot of things if I am not wrong, things like medicines, sacks and many more. It can help the country to develop.” (Participant 8)

“I think it is to make us grow the cannabis the government want to export to other countries that will bring more money. I am told it has a lot of uses outside [overseas)”. (Participant 4)

Perceived Benefits of Cannabis Legalization

The participants highlighted some of the benefits they could derive from cultivating cannabis legally. These include community development, improved standard of living, health benefits, high employment opportunities, industrial purposes and foreign trade, liberty to cultivate cannabis, opportunity to use technology and opportunity for training and education.

Community Development

Almost half (6) of the participants mentioned community development as one of the benefits that could be derived from cultivating cannabis legally. They explained:

“Oh, there will be a lot of benefits. when I left Nsawam in 2009 and came back to the village I could say my village has developed even though they are doing it illegally. You can imagine if they were doing so legally to employ more people?” (Participant 11)

“Oh, the community will gain a lot of benefits. Business will boom in the town because people will have the money to afford what they want and people will make profit” (Participant 12)

Improved Standards of Living

Five (5) of the participants detailed that legalizing cannabis cultivation could benefit them improve their standard of living be able to provide for their families. The quote below summarizes their views:

“Arh. Like I said, I have been in the house for the past few months but at least I have been able to provide for family my situation is not that bad. So, if they allow us to grow it legally, it will help me a lot.” (Participant 2)

“Right now, the things I am able to do I couldn’t do them when I was a laborer but now, I have done a lot. Such as land but we haven’t built yet, catering for my family everyone is okay now. So, they should legalize it to help is do it commercially”. (Participant 12)

Health Benefits

Few participants (2) also talked about the health benefits that could be derived from cannabis legislation. They explained that cannabis cures some illnesses and if legalized, could help treat such illnesses. The quote below summarizes their view:

“There are several health benefits ranging from relieve stress, body fats, curing asthma when the herb is used for tea. It also lowers high blood pressure. cannabis has so many benefits that our weigh the negative, so if they legalize it, some of these illnesses will be over” (Participant 7)

High Employment and Income Opportunities

Majority of the participants (10) mentioned that legalizing cannabis could lead to high employment and increased income opportunities for the youth. They said:

“Okay, like I said before now the world is hard and Ghana is also difficult now there are no jobs for us to do so from my perspective if they legalize it, it means my child can even come and work for someone and that is the work he does.” (Participant 1)

“Also, as an individual, it will help me get enough money and also reduce my suffering and reduce my thinking of how to make money all the time.” (Participant 8)

Industrial Purpose and Foreign Trade

More than half (8) of the participants highlighted industrial purpose and foreign trade as one of the opportunities to the country for legalizing cannabis. The quotes below summarize their views:

“It will help the country as it is helping other countries such as the Netherlands. We can export some of it to other countries and get more money in return to build the nation for us. There will be a lot of developmental projects such building of schools and hospitals in the country.” (Participant 3)

“Like I said, it is a product that a lot of people want around the world so for we the people selling the herb if it is legalized that means we can freely export and you know exporting these product is a main business it will be a very great business more than any other business ”. (Participant 7)

Liberty to Cultivate Cannabis

Ten (10) of the participants mentioned freedom from police and liberty to cultivate as part of the opportunities they will derive from cannabis legalization. The quotes below summarize their views:

“Individually, when they legalize it, I will be free from the disturbances of the police, and my personal safety will be assured.” (Participant 7)

“Ehhmm. . . as long as it is legalized, I don’t think there will be any force from the government trying to take me down on this product so I at least I can freely cultivate or grow this plant for the usage or consumption of human beings and I plant it anywhere” (Participant 7)

Opportunity to Use Technology

Few of the participants (5) reported that cannabis legalization will offer them the opportunity to use modern technology to boost production and earn more income. The quotes below summarize their views.

“Ummhh. . . its [cannabis] legalization will give us the chance to use tractors and other tools to cultivate on a larger scale and make us make more money. The government will also benefit. It is a win-win situation.” (Participant 8)

“ Oh yes..every human being gets tired when they are working but a machine will work 10times the human being can do before breaking down so legalizing it will bringing advanced technology machines into the farming and will increase productivity. Before a human being will plant about 50 seeds of the herb, machine can do like 150 plus”. (Participant 7)

Opportunity for Training and Education Sessions

Some of the participants (5) reported that legalizing cannabis activities will make them benefit from opportunities such as training and education sessions on their job. The quotes below summarize their views:

“That is how it is supposed to be because in everything you do you first need to be trained, because even as a child if you have to start school you will start from Creche before you move on to higher education. But since it is illegal, nobody is training us. So, if it is legalized, we can benefit from such training.” (Participant 8)

“Oh yeah if the government legalize it and they feel we need additional knowledge to what we already know then I don’t think it is a problem, or if they think the one we already know is enough then they can at least give us a day workshop as for me I do not have any problem.” (Participant 2)

Potential Cannabis Legalization Challenges

The participants reported some of the legalization potential challenges they will encounter prior to legalization. These includes abuse of cannabis, expensive license fees, varying price tag, and high rate in school dropout.

Abuse of Cannabis

Two (2) of the participants reported that one of the potential challenges that may arise is the abusing of cannabis. The quotes below summarize their views:

“If it is legalizing freely people will abuse it so if they will legalize it too, they have to have terms and conditions, if not it will affect the community and all those who abuse it” (Participant 3)

“As for people who overuse it. They turn into different kinds of people. Some become “junkies”. That’s one thing I’m saying, when you abuse it, you become something else. Your behavior will change. So, the government will have to ensure that people don’t abuse it.” (Participant 2)

Expensive License Fees

More than half of the participants (9) talked about the cost of license as one of the potential challenges. They were of the view that it will be expensive to obtain a license post legalization. They explained:

“The problems that will arise after the legalization, will be the amount we need to pay for the license and we the young farmers I do not think we will be able to get that amount. They are mentioning around 50,000 cedis for the license and it will affect those of us that do not have money” (Participant 2)

“Ehh I heard it will cost 20,000 before you can get the license, I heard it in the news. So, some people even came to educate us about it that before we have to get the license we have to be in groups before we can work but up till now, we haven’t heard anything again” (Participant 7)

Varying Price Tag

One (1) of the participants mentioned the varying of price of the commodity as one of the legalization potential challenges. He was of the view that since everyone will be permitted to grow it, the price will vary because of competition. The quote below summarizes his view:

“Ehhhmm. . . when it is legalized there will be price challenge because people will try to get market for their goods and that will affect the market. You know everybody loves what is less expensive things so that is when it will affect the business” (Participant 7)

High Rates of School Dropout

One (1) of the participants also reported that there will be high rate in school dropout upon legislation of cannabis. He was of the view that school-going children will drop out to grow cannabis. He narrated:

“ Mmmm, so one of the challenges that will occur will be children of school going age may not want to go to school anymore so there should be

laws governing the operation of the cannabis” (Participant 8)

Policy Recommendations

The participants recommended some of the policies that the government could implement prior to the industrial legalization of cannabis. These policies include age standardization for the business, setting up of agencies to oversee the cannabis business, decentralize the issuance of license, issuing of license for both cannabis farmers and traders, review the amount for license acquisition and subsidization of farming inputs.

Age Standardization

Almost half (6) of the participants recommended that age range should be considered in dealing with cannabis to prevent the underage group from indulging in the business and also using it. The quote below summarizes their views:

“Age should also be a factor because, everyone one who started school at the average age by 18,19,20 they should be able to finish secondary school, so anything belwo18 is underage and should not be allowed to engage in the business” (Participant 1)

“Will also want to suggest that they should have age limit with regards to who should qualify as a cannabis farmer and who shouldn’t. Students should not be allowed to work on the farm” (Participant 7)

Agencies to Oversee Cannabis Business

Four (4) of the participants recommended that agencies should be set up to oversee the cannabis business. The quote below summarizes their views:

“There should also be agencies that will supervise the work, but I think the district assembly should also supervise in term of the tax payment and license renewal they should also see to monitoring of the of the farm and also people should be charged for taxes according to the size of the farm. There should also be checks for those who take the license and also the records of those who will be involved in the business. (Participant 1)

“The government should set up a foundation like how. . .. . . okay we already have the Food and Drugs Authority so they should check up on these farmers, inspect the crops and should push it”. (Participant 7)

Decentralization of the Issuance of Licenses

One (1) of the participants reported that the issuance of license should be decentralized to make it accessible to farmers. The quote below summarizes his view:

“The government have decentralized everything, including the issuance of licenses because if you look at our paramount chief in the community, he has championed all the governments business in the district.” (Participant 1)

Issuance of Licenses for Both Growers and Traders

Few of the participants (3) recommended that the license should be issued to both traders and farmers to facilitate smooth cannabis business. The quote below summarizes their views:

“I will also want to suggest that the government should issue the license for both the farmers and the business partners involved in the cannabis farming.” (Participant 1)

“Oh yes they (customers) are also part of the game, so they also have to get the license before they have access.” (Participant 7)

Review the Amount for License Acquisition

Four (4) participants recommended that the amount for the issuance of the license should be reviewed to make it affordable to farmers. The quote below summarizes their view:

“ I would like to tell the government that they should review the amount they mentioned for the license. The amount I’m hearing now is too high. ” (Participant 7)

“I will also recommend that the money for the license should be re-looked at. The price of the license should be cheap so that we the poor can also farm because it is the only livelihood here in the town.” (Participant 3))

Subsidization of Farming Inputs

Less than half of the participants (4) recommended that the government should give free or reduced fertilizers and seeds prices to farmers. The quote below summarizes their views:

“Okay I can say that as they have supported the cocoa farmers all these years if they can do same for us and help we the farmers in the farmer’s association by giving us free fertilizers ever year, it will help” (Participant 3)

“ The government should offer us fertilizers and medicines on discounted prices for us to buy and farm on a larger scale. They should also come and buy from us. ” (Participant 8)

Discussion

In this study, we explored the perspective of illicit cannabis growers in the Hohoe Municipality on the cannabis legislation discourse in the country. The analysis was organized around 4 predefined thematic areas, while the sub-themes within these areas emerged inductively from participants’ responses (understanding of cannabis legalization, perceived benefits of legalizing cannabis, its perceived challenges and their professed recommendations on the bill). Regarding their understanding of the bill, we found that participants understood it to mean issuance of licenses for cannabis cultivation and trading, free supply of farming inputs, freedom from police harassment and opportunity for industrial use of cannabis.

A key finding of this study is the divergence between participants’ perceptions of cannabis legalization and the actual provisions of the policy. For instance, many participants expected direct government support such as free farming inputs and simplified access to licenses. However, the policy primarily emphasizes regulatory control, licensing, and compliance requirements, without explicit guarantees of such support. These discrepancies may reflect limited awareness or misunderstanding of the policy among illicit growers, as well as communication gaps between policymakers and affected stakeholders. Addressing these gaps through targeted education and stakeholder engagement will be critical to ensuring realistic expectations and effective policy implementation.

One of the ways participants expressed their understanding of the cannabis legalization bill was through the issuance of licenses for cannabis operations. Studies highlight that stakeholders perceive government-issued licenses for cannabis operations as a key step in legalizing and regulating cannabis^2,11,33 According to Spielman et al³⁴ and Bryan et al,³⁵ effective licensing can facilitate safer, regulated cannabis markets, reduce illegal sales, and generate economic benefits such as job creation and tax revenue. Participants believed that government oversight through licensing could ensure product safety and quality control. However, efficient licensing protocols need to be laid down by the government to prevent illegal license acquisition, cultivation and trading of cannabis upon legalization.

Participants also noted that government provision of free farming inputs such as fertilizers were all aspects of the cannabis legalization bill. These resources lower production costs and improve crop quality.^34,36 Thus, illegal cannabis farmers envisage government support upon its legalization. However, it is worth noting that, this is not always the case. Experiences from California’s cannabis legalization system has shown that small scale illicit growers are often marginalized in the legalization discourse, hampering their acquisition of licenses and other benefits thereof, pushing them into underground illicit trade.³⁷ Hence, while the prime focus is on the certification for commercial cultivation, there is the need for the government to consider empowering small grower illicit farmers efforts by providing them with the required licenses and subsidized farming inputs such as quality seedlings and fertilizers.

Participants also understood cannabis legalization to mean freedom from arrests and prosecutions. Police harassment and brutality of illegal cannabis growers is a frequent issue under cannabis decriminalization.³⁸ Hence, participants mentioned it as an added benefit of the cannabis legalization discourse. Thus, legalization may reduce law enforcement confrontations, alleviate stress and anxiety among cultivators, and free up police resources for more serious crimes,^39,40 However, it is crucial for the government to educate small holder illegal former on the requirements to be certified as legal cannabis grower to avert misunderstanding of the bill.

Furthermore, understood cannabis legalization to mean an opportunity to grow cannabis for industrial purposes which could unlock significant economic opportunities for individuals and the country. The industrial use of cannabis such as for textiles, biodegradable plastics, construction materials, and biofuels is well documented.^41,42 While these cannabis-based industries may reduce economic strain on individuals and the country, concerns exist regarding the potential blurring of lines between industrial cannabis production and psychoactive cannabis, potentially increasing recreational use and related public health issues.⁴³ Therefore, strict regulations distinguishing cannabis for industrial purposes and psychoactive cannabis should be enforced by the government.⁴⁴

We also inquired about the benefits participants believed they stood to gain upon legalization of industrial cannabis cultivation in Ghana. One key benefit participant mentioned was its potential to develop their communities. This, they explained, could be achieved by empowering individuals financially leading to community development. Research has shown that indulgence in cannabis activities provide individuals with the needed income to address their needs and improve local economies^45,46 This, participants opined that could improve their standards of living. Hence, the government of Ghana ought to see cannabis legislation as an economic necessity that should be legalized to regularize the acclivities of those who depend on it illegally as a source of income despite the risks.⁴⁷

Participants also mentioned that cannabis possess certain health benefits which could be harnessed upon its legalization. They believed that cannabis could treat illnesses such as asthma and aids in fat burning, reflecting growing global interest in the medicinal properties of cannabis.⁴⁸ The medicinal benefits of cannabis have been well documented.⁴⁹ However, the popularity of alternative medicine and aggressive marketing contribute to these beliefs, especially in areas with limited healthcare access.⁵⁰ Meanwhile, the unregulated use of cannabis products for medicinal purposes poses risks of side effects and drug interactions,⁵¹ hence the need for the government to legalize cannabis and educate the public on its health benefits as well.

The findings of this study also reflect important structural and implementation-level barriers that extend beyond individual perceptions of cannabis legalization. Participants’ concerns regarding licensing costs, limited access to state support, and experiences of police harassment highlight broader systemic challenges that shape engagement with illicit cannabis cultivation and anticipated transition into a regulated market. These findings suggest that legalization is not only a policy shift but also an implementation process influenced by structural inequalities and institutional practices.

This aligns with broader literature on substance-use stigma, which emphasizes the role of structural factors in shaping the experiences of individuals involved in illicit drug economies. For example, Madden et al⁵² found that even when stakeholders recognize stigma as an individual issue, they also acknowledge the presence of deeper structural barriers that require system-level interventions. Similarly, our findings suggest that addressing cannabis legalization in Ghana requires moving beyond individual-level perspectives to consider regulatory accessibility, institutional support, and enforcement practices that may either facilitate or hinder successful policy implementation.

Increased employment opportunities tied to cannabis legalization was one benefit the participants were yearning for. This aligns with research from Madden et al⁵² showing job creation across cultivation, processing, retail, and related sectors following the legalization of cannabis.⁵² The employment opportunities go beyond the individual level. Legalizing cannabis for industrial purposes could also boost foreign trade thereby boosting boost tax revenues, which can fund public services and infrastructure, fostering economic growth.⁵³ Cannabis can produce a wide range of products, including textiles, paper, biodegradable plastics, and construction materials,⁵⁴ which can stimulate economic growth and create jobs by fostering new manufacturing sectors.⁵⁵ Cannabis legalization could also open access to the growing global cannabis markets, enabling Ghana to boost foreign exchange earnings, as seen in Canada and the Netherlands.⁵⁶ These economic potentials if properly harnessed by the government, could positively impact public health, especially in marginalized communities, by improving healthcare access, living conditions, and reducing poverty-related stress.^11,57 Moreover, a regulated cannabis market can decrease illegal activities, reducing crime and incarceration rates, thereby addressing pressing sociolect-economic challenges of communities.⁵⁸

Leveraging technology for commercial cannabis cultivation was another salient benefit of cannabis legalization that participants were anticipating. As small-sale illegal farmers, they do not have the freedom and access to modern technology to maximize production. For instance, they are unable to plow their lands for fear of being arrested. However, when legalized, they will stand in a position to benefit these technologies to boost production. Participant’s assertion of benefiting from technology post legalization is apt. In Latin America, for instance, legal cannabis growers have benefited from modern greenhouse farming to maximize production.⁵⁹ Farmers also stand the chance of being trained and educated on modern methods of cannabis cultivation. Educating and training of farmers as part of cannabis legalization in Africa has been cited as a key determinant in unlocking the socioeconomic advantages of cannabis on the African continent.⁶⁰ Thus, apart from benefiting from farming inputs such as fertilizers and seeds, farmers could deploy the latest farming technology and education to boost production.

We also ascertained some of the challenges participants believed the legalization of cannabis could pose to their illicit business. Varied concerns were raised. One significant challenge highlighted by the participants is the potential for abuse of cannabis upon its legalization. This concern is echoed in existing literature, where similar issues have been raised in in the USA.⁶¹ The concern is legitimate as cannabis legalization may increase access, both legal and illegal to cannabis for recreational use, posing a significant public health risk.⁶² Adolescents are particularly at risk of abusing cannabis as it is a stage of experimenting with illicit drugs,⁶³ which negatively affects their cognitive development.⁶⁴ Hence, there should be stricter measures in place to ensure that illegal cannabis activities are curtailed upon its legalization to minimize its access for recreational purposes.

Participants also identified the high cost of obtaining cannabis licenses as a major barrier that could hamper effective legalization policy, especially for small-scale farmers with limited financial resources, as they may not be able to afford it. Expensive licensing and compliance costs have been found to disproportionately affect small scale cannabis operators upon legalization, often excluding them from the legal market.¹¹ Such financial barriers may drive these producers to the unregulated black market, increasing public health risks due to potentially contaminated or improperly dosed cannabis products.⁶⁵ To mitigate these challenges, policymakers should consider tiered licensing fees with reduced costs and provide financial support or subsidies for small scale cannabis growers. These measures could promote legal compliance, curb black-market activity, and ensure safer access to regulated cannabis products.¹¹

Furthermore, some participants expressed concerns that the legalization of cannabis could lead to significant price variations in the market, which could pose challenges for producers. This issue is particularly concerning as some cannabis products may be sold at significantly lower prices than others, potentially leading to unfair competition and market instability. This concern is in line with the findings of Caulkins,³⁶ who noted that price fluctuations in a newly legalized market could lead to economic disparities. The potential for significant price variations in the cannabis market due to legalization could lead to market instability, affecting product quality, safety and access. Thus, lower-priced products may come from illegal farmers, increasing access to cannabis for recreational use. To address this, regulatory bodies should establish fair pricing frameworks and ensure transparency in product labeling to maintain market stability and protect consumer health.

Participants also expressed concern that cannabis legalization, particularly cannabis cultivation, might increase school dropout rates as some young adults may prefer working as cannabis operators over continuing their education. This aligns with findings by McCaffrey et al,⁶⁶ who examined how emerging economic opportunities in new industries can draw students away from school due to the allure of immediate financial gains. High dropout rates have significant public health consequences, as education is critical for long-term well-being, stable employment, and reducing health disparities.² For disadvantaged youth, the short-term benefits of cannabis industry jobs may outweigh the long-term advantages and may drop out of school to indulge in the business, especially in communities where illicit cannabis activities already abound.⁶⁷ With dwindled employment opportunities for graduates in Ghana,⁶⁸ cannabis legalization could prove more tempting for the youth to indulge in rather than pursuing education. Thus, extensive educational campaigns would have to be embarked on by the government to convince to youth to at lead obtain some level of education before venturing into legal cannabis business.

We also explored participants’ recommendations for affective policy formulation and implementation. Varied recommendations were offered. One of such recommendations is that the government should have age limit for those who will want to operate as commercial cannabis growers. This, they said could safeguard vulnerable populations, especially children of school going age and young adults, from dropping out of school to indulge in cannabis business. This recommendation aligns with findings from a study by Hasan and Das,⁶⁹ who found that age limits are effective in reducing youth involvement in risky businesses and practices such as cannabis cultivation and trading, thereby protecting their health and mitigating long-term negative outcomes.⁷⁰

Participants also recommended that government should setup an agency after the legalization to oversee the cannabis business. This agency would be responsible for monitoring and evaluating the activities of farmers and businesses involved in cannabis cultivation, processing, and distribution.⁷¹ This is in line with Caulkins and Kilborn,⁷² findings that the establishment of the Cannabis Regulatory Agency in Canada played a crucial role in ensuring compliance with safety standards, preventing the illegal diversion of cannabis products, and promoting public health through stringent monitoring and evaluation. Establishing an agency to oversee the cannabis business would thus help to ensure that cannabis products are safe for consumption, reducing the risk of public health issues associated with poorly regulated agricultural practices or illegal activities.^49,72

Participants again recommended that the government should decentralize the issuance of licenses for legal cannabis cultivation. This, they said is to allow local authorities to govern the issuance of the license for the farmers making in more accessible at the community level. Hoesein et al⁷³ emphasized that decentralizing regulatory authority can enhance local governance and ensure that the unique needs of different regions are addressed more effectively. Decentralizing cannabis industry licensing thus allows local authorities to better monitor and regulate the industry, leading to improved safety standards, reduced risks from unregulated farming, and prioritization of public health in licensing decisions.^6,74 Decentralization of licensing also allows for a regulatory process that is more aligned to local conditions, leading to more efficient and effective oversight. Moreover, local authorities, with their better understanding of regional challenges, can reduce delays and improve compliance with licensing requirements, thereby preventing illegal activities within the cannabis industry.⁷⁴

Furthermore, participants recommended that the license should be issued to both farmers and traders. This is to monitor the production and distribution of the cannabis hence promoting safety and reducing related risks. This recommendation is in line with findings of research conducted by Dickson et al,⁷⁵ which underscores the importance of a holistic licensing framework that covers the entire supply chain from cultivation to distribution to ensure the industry operates within legal and safety parameters. Decentralizing the issuance of licenses for both cannabis farmers and traders enhance public health by improving safety standards and reducing risks from unregulated practices.^11,36,47 It also creates a transparent and accountable industry, reduces illegal activities, and ensures the safety and legality of cannabis products throughout the supply chain.⁷⁶

Again, participants recommended that government should review the amount for obtaining the license. Participants in the study recommended that the government review the fee structure for obtaining licenses, particularly to accommodate small-scale cannabis business owners who might struggle with the proposed high cost of license. Cantore,⁷⁷ opined that high licensing fees can serve as a barrier to entry for smaller producers and businesses, potentially stifling innovation and competition in the cannabis industry. Hence, lowering licensing fees for small-scale cannabis businesses can enhance industry regulation and safety, helping to mitigate risks such as unsafe products and promoting community well-being.^4,15 Policy makers ought to consider this recommendation as reducing licensing fees can remove financial barriers for small-scale operators, encouraging compliance with regulatory standards and improving overall industry safety and quality.⁷⁷

Finally, participant recommended that the government should provide free or subsidized farming inputs such as fertilizers and seeds to augment their activities. This is this to help them from the financial cost they bare to afford such inputs. Researchers have found that such programs significantly improve the adoption of improved farming practices among small-scale farmers, which leads to better crop yields and more sustainable farming practices.^55,78 Providing free or subsidized prices for fertilizers and seeds promotes the sustainability and safety of cannabis farming, leading to safer, more regulated cannabis products and mitigating risks like environmental contamination.⁷⁹ Thus, lowering the cost of fertilizers and seeds helps small-scale farmers overcome financial barriers, enabling them to invest in better practices and adhere to regulatory standards, leading to improving overall industry quality and safety.¹⁵

Implications for Public Health Policy

Our findings highlight the considerations that policy makers in Ghana could consider in in the attempt to legalize commercial hemp cultivation in the country.

Regarding knowledge on the policy, policy makers should focus on increasing knowledge among the general public through the use of mass media and community networks to avoid misconceptions that the policy aims to legalize recreational cannabis cultivation and trading. This could help curb misapplication of the policy by scrupulous individuals and endanger public health. Secondly, the benefits that industrial legalization of cannabis presents to both farmers and the government could be harnessed effectively by empowering already existing illegal farmers to make an honest living while at the same time they will be contributing legally to community and national developmental efforts. This could go a long way to minimize criminal activities in illegal cannabis growing settings. Moreover, by addressing the concerns of illicit cannabis growers such as lowering the cost of licenses as well as streamlining its acquisition processes for easy application, illicit cannabis activities could be brough to the barest minimum thereby improving public safety and health. Lastly, by enforcing age restrictions in licensing acquisition as suggested, could also help to safeguard the future of children in illicit cannabis growing settings upon passage of the policy. This could be achieved through active engagement of licensed cannabis growers in the country.

Conclusion

For Ghana to successfully implement the cannabis legalization bill, the government need to embark on extensive public educational camping to improve public awareness and understanding of the bill. Also, policy makers need to ensure that the voices of illicit cannabis growers are considered in the cannabis legalization discourse to ensure that their concerns are addressed in the bill before its implementation.

Strengths and Limitations of the Study

The study was conducted among credible illicit cannabis growers in the Volta region of Ghana, making the study findings credible enough to inform policy on cannabis legalization in the country. First, the study was conducted in a single municipality, which may limit the transferability of the findings to other settings in Ghana or similar contexts. Second, the use of snowball sampling may introduce selection bias, as participants were likely to refer individuals within their existing networks. Third, the relatively small sample size reflects the qualitative nature of the study but may not capture the full diversity of perspectives among illicit cannabis growers. Despite these limitations, the study provides important exploratory insights into a largely under-researched population and contributes to understanding their perspectives on cannabis legalization.

Supplemental Material

sj-docx-1-sat-10.1177_29768357261458735 – Supplemental material for Opinions of Illicit Cannabis Growers on the Industrial Legalization of Cannabis in Ghana: An Exploratory Qualitative Study

Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-sat-10.1177_29768357261458735 for Opinions of Illicit Cannabis Growers on the Industrial Legalization of Cannabis in Ghana: An Exploratory Qualitative Study by Joyce Mawufemor Dovlo, Samuel Tweneboa Agyei, Festus Dwomoh and Emmanuel Manu in Substance Use: Research and Treatment

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the study participants for availing themselves for this study.

List of Abbreviations

THC tetrahydrocannabinol

FDA food and drugs authority

UHAS university of health and allied sciences

REC research ethics committee

ORCID iD

Emmanuel Manu

Author Contributions

EM conceptualized and designed the study; JMD and STA collected the data; EM and FD supervised the data collection; JDM and STA analyzed the data. EM and FD led the writing of the manuscript; all the authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

The data used in this study can be obtained from the corresponding author upon reasonable request*.

Supplemental Material

Supplemental material for this article is available online.

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