Applications of Self-Determination Theory in the General Music Classroom

Abstract

Student motivation is frequently an issue in general music classrooms, and many long-standing theories designed to increase motivation have the opposite effect. This article introduces Self-Determination Theory, first developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, as a theory of human motivation. A key element of Self-Determination Theory is the concept of three basic human psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. This article details each need and provides suggestions for direct applications to the general music classroom. Through the fulfillment of these needs, teachers can encourage and support a students’ engagement in musical activities and personal growth.

Introduction

As general music teachers, we welcome a wide variety of students into our classrooms. Some self-identify as musicians and come running into the room ready for anything. Others sit in their designated seat and demonstrate through their body language that they’d much rather be anywhere else but in music class. They slouch in their chair, avoid eye contact, and provide one-word answers when asked questions about themselves or their day. When asked to engage in musical tasks, they refuse or give minimal effort. As music teachers, it is our job to engage all of these learners in meaningful music making experiences. Motivating them to participate in an activity, however, can be a challenge.

In the early 20th century, theorists such as B. F. Skinner proposed and encouraged the use of reinforcement theories in all types of learning, and we still see elements of this theory in classrooms today (Skinner, 1961). Skinner states the following about reinforcement using operant conditioning: “The application of operant conditioning to education is simple and direct. Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement under which students learn” (Skinner, 1961, p. 65). Many schools use incentive programs, such as handing out paper tickets to well-behaved students, to reward desirable student behaviors. Students who do not follow instructions in class are verbally reprimanded or not given a prize. These techniques, though sometimes effective in the moment, have flaws. Students who struggle with behavioral issues often never receive positive praise or any sort of reinforcement from teachers.

Research has shown that when these types of rewards are used for long periods of time, students do not feel any sense of intrinsic motivation for their work (Robbins & Langton, 1999). If these techniques are overused, students may feel manipulated and a loss of control over their own behaviors (Criss, 2011). Instead of focusing on purely external rewards, it is important for us as music educators to pause and consider ways we can meet the needs of students and bolster their intrinsic motivation for learning. Other popular motivational theories found in music education research include expectancy value (Lowe, 2011), self-efficacy (Hendricks, 2013), and attribution theory (Legette, 1998). There are many psychological theories that provide suggestions for the music classroom, but Self-Determination Theory, with its focus on the source and quality of individual motivation, is a strong fit for the general music classroom.

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) was originally proposed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan. This theory states that all humans are inherently motivated toward psychological growth and well-being (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2020). Unlike other motivational theories, SDT goes beyond a simple focus on emotional, social, or cognitive factors that influence motivation and instead focuses on an individual’s interactions with an environment and the impact of these interactions.

SDT is a suitable motivational theory for general music educators for several reasons. As a framework, SDT is expansive and can help teachers understand a wide variety of behaviors in the music classroom. SDT also places emphasis on the quality of motivation rather than the quantity. Instead of focusing on increasing the motivation of all students in the classroom, SDT instead explores ways to support students’ feelings of motivations and move students toward feelings of intrinsic motivation and fulfillment of basic psychological needs (Evans, 2015).

A key component of SDT is the concept of basic psychological needs. According to this theory, all humans require fulfillment of three basic needs to psychologically thrive: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Autonomy refers to the sense that one’s actions are coming from one’s own volition. Competence refers to the feeling that one can complete a task or demonstrate a skill and succeed. Relatedness refers to the feeling that one has connections to individuals in their environment (Deci & Ryan, 2000).

Although the application of SDT to music education is still new (Evans, 2015), there are elements of this theory that have clear implications for general music classroom practice. Research has shown students who have their basic psychological needs met in the music classroom spend more time highly engaged in musical learning (Evans, 2015), show a greater level of self-efficacy, have higher levels of self-esteem and well-being (Krause et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2021), demonstrate higher levels of musical performance (Schmidt, 2005), and select to continue musical learning when it is no longer required by the school’s curriculum (Freer & Evans, 2018).

When considering the general music classroom specifically, there are many ways in which SDT can be applied and benefit both students and teachers. The following three sections highlight each of the three basic psychological needs and provide recommendations for teachers on ways to create a need-fulfilling environment in their general music spaces.

Autonomy

The first basic psychological need to consider is autonomy. Autonomy is defined in SDT by feelings of choice and volition (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Autonomous behavior in students aligns with their sense of self, and students feel autonomous in the classroom when they believe they have control over their actions and their learning. Researchers who have explored the topic of autonomy-supportive classrooms found higher levels of student engagement as compared to classrooms with a more controlling environment. This does not, however, suggest a lack of structure in a classroom setting. A high level of both autonomy and structure lead to the highest levels of student engagement (Jang et al., 2010).

Suggestions for creating an autonomy-supportive environment in a general music classroom are as follows:

Sharing the Outcome

Teachers should consider how they are presenting an activity or skill to students and how to include an aspect of student choice. Sharing the desired lesson or performance outcome and allowing students to brainstorm how the class will reach that outcome puts the ownership in the hands of the students and leads to greater feelings of autonomy among learners. Teachers should allow students to choose the desired outcome as often as possible. For example: If a general music class hopes to perform in a concert, students can contribute their ideas on which piece should be chosen through a class discussion, worksheet, or online survey, and then contribute ideas as to how the class can go about learning and performing the piece. Allowing students to discuss reasons for or against a musical choice contributes to feelings of autonomy while allowing students to practice the use of musical language and evaluate their group’s readiness for performance. These conversations are supported by teacher questioning but allow students to take ownership of their learning outcomes and the ways they share their learning with others.

Providing Choice Activities

Whenever possible, students should be offered choices in the classroom regarding topics and learning activities. Students can choose from a list of potential song options for group work, learn and perform from a songbook that provides various challenge levels and familiar songs on instruments, or suggest songs for a class playlist for warm up activities. Student input into songs, instruments used, and activities should have a place in every general music lesson. Students can also be given choice in the way they demonstrate their mastery of new material or skills. Assessment options, such as a class performance or the creation of a video, allow students to feel autonomous in their assessment while also feeling in control of their musical learning.

Improvisation and Composition

Improvisation and composition are essential aspects of the national standard, “Create” (The National Association for Music Education, 2014). Autonomy support includes feelings of volition and choice, and allowing students freedom and choices when they compose, such as which instrument to use, how they collaborate with others, and how they notate their musical work, gives students fulfillment for the need of autonomy while allowing them to be creative and express their musical ideas without the inhibitions of strict rules. Improvisation can be fun and freeing for students if a supportive and nurturing environment has been established in the classroom. When inviting students to improvise, teachers should provide some syntax and structure while also leaving space for musical exploration; this is also known as an improvisational framework (Edmund & Keller, 2019). Providing space for autonomy does not equate to creating a laissez-faire, completely unstructured environment. Autonomy- supportive environments can still include structure, support, and teacher expectations for performance (Evans, 2015). For example: when improvising on xylophones, suggesting a student plays notes of the pentatonic scale or experiment with previously introduced eighth note patterns provides students with a place to start instead of leaving improvisation completely open ended.

Competence

The second basic psychological need is competence, which describes the human desire for effectiveness in one’s skills, social interactions, and, in our case, musical abilities in the classroom (Ryan & Deci, 2020). Students need to feel successful in their music- making attempts for them to feel motivated to continue trying, learning, and making mistakes. In the classroom, students’ need for competency can be met in a variety of ways.

Emphasizing Effort Over Outcome

Teacher language should continually emphasize a student’s efforts over the outcome. As a student or class is working on a new piece, teachers can celebrate the ways in which the class is working and problem solving as they navigate through a difficult task instead of simply celebrating the end result of a complete performance. Teachers can also celebrate little victories along the way, such as the first time a class reaches the end of a piece without stopping. This language must be genuine and specific to the task at hand, as nonspecific language can feel insincere to students (Evans, 2015).

Growth Over Ability

Celebrating a student’s progress over the course of the year instead of their ability to meet specific and generalized benchmarks can support the need for competence. This growth can be tracked through goal setting at the beginning of each year, semester, and so on and measured in a way that meets the needs of both the student and the teacher. We must consider the questions “It is acceptable for students to finish a unit or year with varying levels of skills?.” For example, a ukulele unit can look different for each student. Some students start with no experience on any fretted instrument and can set a goal of playing and performing four chords on the ukulele. Other students who start the unit with previous guitar or ukulele experience can set goals and show growth in other areas such as tab reading or playing more complex chords. Creating opportunities for differentiation in instruction and outcome sets students up for feelings of success (Bernard & Cayari, 2020) and fulfills the basic psychological need for competence.

Growth Mindset

In line with the work of Carol Dweck (2017), teachers should embrace a growth mindset and demonstrate this to their students. Dweck defines growth mindset as the belief that one’s abilities and intelligence can grow and change; she contrasts this with a fixed mindset, the belief that one’s abilities and intelligence is fixed and cannot be developed. To align with the need for competence in the general music classroom, teachers should emphasize students’ hard work and perseverance over a students’ abilities and practice strategies over outcomes. When learning new repertoire or teaching new skills, an emphasis should be placed on reinforcing skills and foundational understandings such as the playing or explaining of a pentatonic scale before composing on a barred instrument.

Process Over Final Product

As learners tackle difficult tasks, teachers can emphasize and praise strategies for learning and new skills over the final outcomes. Concerts and performances, though wonderful experiences, should not be emphasized over the learning that occurs in the classroom daily. Teachers can design concert programs that showcase the steps in the learning process, such as showcasing a melody, harmony, and improvisational skills before playing a whole piece, emphasizes process for stakeholders as well.

Relatedness

Relatedness, the third basic psychological need, refers to the human dependence on the creation and sustenance of close relationships with others (Deci & Ryan, 2000). As humans, we form bonds with others and need to feel a sense of acceptance and belonging in these relationships (Ryan & Deci, 2002). Musical learning in a general music classroom almost always happens in some sort of group environment, but simply learning with others does not necessarily fulfill the need for relatedness.

Encourage Peer Interactions in Learning

Students should have opportunities to collaborate with peers as part of the learning process, and teachers can find ways for students to learn from each other in collaborative ways. Whether working on a project or allowing students to share ideas with each other, structured activates in general music classrooms that support group work, such as a group composition project, or discussions with classmates, such as think-pair-share, can nurture the bond between students in a class can support the need for relatedness.

Teacher Relationships With Students

Positive teacher/student relationships are essential to fulfilling a student’s need for relatedness. Teachers should plan activities in the music classroom that allow them to get to know each of their students in a meaningful way. Asking a student for their name and pronouns and using these consistently in the classroom can foster a feeling of knowing and acceptance between teacher and student. Student surveys at the beginning of the semester or each school year allow students to share their current musical interests, hobbies, and passions with their teacher. These student/teacher connections must be genuine and bidirectional; to fulfill the need for relatedness, relationships must benefit both individuals (Evans, 2015). Teachers can share aspects of their lives with students to encourage and foster relationships. This can include the teacher sharing videos or photos of musical performances they enjoy or sharing a favorite song with the class.

Supporting Connections With Families and Communities

Although they are not present in class, families and caregivers are an important part of musical learning in the classroom. Communication with families is essential to student success and supports the relationships between teachers, students, and students’ home environments. Newsletters or email communication to families and caregivers from the music teacher regarding ways caregivers can support musical learning at home, such as encouraging a student to practice their recorder or having a conversation with a student about what they are learning in music class, are essential for students’ success and feelings of support and connection outside the music classroom. Depending on district and school policies, teachers may be able to share photos and videos from music class in a shared app, such as Seesaw or Klassly, or through digital newsletters.

Conclusion

Motivation continues to be a challenging but important topic for music educators. The question of how to increase a students’ motivation is not necessarily the question educators should be asking. Instead, according to SDT, we must ask how we are creating a need-supportive environment in the music classroom and can therefore encourage a students’ continued enjoyment in musical behaviors and foster personal growth. The suggestions presented in this article are in no way exhaustive of all the ways SDT can be incorporated into the general music classroom setting. They are, however, a place to start exploring and experimenting with a theory of motivation in a general music space. The research on motivation in the general music classroom is limited and is certainly an area of growth for our profession. As general music teachers, we can create a need-supportive environment for young, malleable musicians who, with encouragement and support, will become our next generation of music makers.