Let her play: An analysis of Title IX and the development of the modern female

Abstract

The modern development of women’s sports in the United States begins in an opportunistic manner with the passing of Title IX in 1972 as an amendment to the 1964 U.S. Civil Rights Act. The multiple-decade impact of the renamed Patsy Takemoto Mink Equal Opportunity in Education Act is impressive—it allows women access to sports, and provided access to scholarships for them to obtain a post-secondary degree. Title IX also grew the pool of women athletes worldwide (mainly through U.S. college athletic recruiting) that would horizontally develop semi-professional teams and vertically develop younger women’s sports team as feeder systems. While acknowledging that Title IX has experienced controversy, missteps, and unintended outcomes as described in this article, this federal law is noted as the most successful civil rights statue in history. The direct application of Title IX has seen its days in court and on the field. Even with this colorful history, Title IX has educated generations of women and has brought reality to the words “level the playing field.” This article travels through the history of Title IX, summarizes key points, reviews issues and successes, provides relevant data, and closes with a current look at the law’s implementation.

Introduction

Recently, when Sirius XM Radio host Dave Zirin (2015) declared 2015 “The Summer of Women,” it was in sincerity with respect to women. Zirin (2015) listed several perennial events and individuals to back up his declaration to include (1) Women’s Tennis star Serena Williams; (2) Women’s World Cup Soccer; (3) Mixed Martial Arts Champion Ronda Rousey; and (4) Pro Women Wrestling. These events entertained and captivated the entire world in a manner that was unanticipated. Notwithstanding the skill and athleticism displayed by the female gender, the social impact of the efforts of these women may have a rippling effect for females everywhere. In similar fashion, news magazine Coach and Athletic Director (CoachAD.com, 2006) printed The Women’s Sports Foundation (TWSF) selection of a list of game changers for Women’s Sports (Womens Sports Foundation). Coach and Athletic Director (CoachAD.com, 2006; Five Game-Changers, 2006) bolstered this list with the following to outline U.S. women’s team sport superiority for several decades: (1) Title IX; (2) the 1996 first Olympic “hat trick”; (3) the 1999 World Cup; (4) Althea Gibson’s breaking of the color barrier in tennis; and (5) The All-American Girls Professional Baseball League. As the years and distance grow with the passing of Title IX, the importance of its most unintended consequence and the socio-economic results of this event continue to solidify the impact of this legislation. The remainder of this paper will provide a summary of the events leading up to “The Summer of Women.” First, a synopsis of Title IX will set the stage to discuss issues surrounding this law and the connection of American women’s sports and collegiate education. Next, salient issues surrounding the ongoing development of women’s sports will be reviewed. Then, a brief status of women’s sports, including highlighting some of the perineal performances mentioned, will be examined. Finally, this paper will conclude with an exploration concerning future implications of Title IX, women in sports, the larger footprint of overall wellbeing and development for females, and some of the most pertinent unintended consequences of the law. While most of the discussion pertaining to Title IX focuses on the monetary end of this law and its enforcement, this paper will propose a wider view of the merit and worth of Title IX and its relationship to female sports and the connectivity to the overall development and improved wellbeing of females.

Contextual background and brief history of title IX

The dawn of the 20th century witnessed the devastation of two world wars. The machinery required to fight these wars initiated the Industrial Revolution, which required a large and cheap labor force (Adams et al., 2016). The growth and progress of the Industrial Revolution was built on the back of laborers—mainly women and children (Adams et al., 2016). As women grew in the labor force, their ability to demand a voice in governance grew. The dawning of women’s equality in the United States began when women received the right to vote in 1920 with the passing of the Women’s Suffrage Bill (Adams et al., 2016). Next, the passing of the 1938 Fair Labor Act set the cornerstones for the concept of parity and equity for women in the workplace (Adams et al., 2016). While the right to vote was instrumental in the fight for women’s rights, access to education and good jobs would not be realized for another 52 years.

Title IX was passed in its second House presentation in 1972 as an amendment to the 1964 U.S. Civil Rights Act (Buchanan, 2012). Hextrum and Sethi argue that bureaucratic stymieing, legal struggles, interpretations, and implementation of these 37 words may actually place the practical life of this law in the mid-1900s (Hextrum and Sethi, 2021). Despite the paucity of words and the short shelf life, undeniably, the concerted and purposefully development of women’s sports in the United States begins with Title IX. Coach and Athletic Director (CoachAD.com, 2006) stated unequivocally that Title IX was on top of the list in statutory game changers for females and sports participation in the United States. During the years when U.S. affirmative action policies were instituted to improve the inequalities of racial minorities, lawmakers also sought to address disparities along gender lines (Adams et al., 2016). Then, President Richard Nixon signed into federal law Title IX of the Education Amendment of 1972, paving the way for equal rights in education forum (to include sports) for females (Steven, 2004). Succinctly, Title IX states:

No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal. financial assistance (20 U.S.C. § 1681 (a) retrieved from: https://www.justice.gov/crt/title-ix-education-amendments-1972).

Juxtaposed Title IX was the creation of the Association of Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW) by two organizations—the Division on Girls’ and Women’s Sports and the American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation with a stated focus on maintain education and promoting participation and not the development of athletic skills (Buzuvis, 2023). The AIAW attempted to control all aspects of women’s intercollegiate sports—stressing the education model over a competitive model, restricting the number of competitive events, prohibiting recruiting, and not awarding scholarships (Buzuvis, 2023). The AIAW’s control over women’s sports was brief—essentially ending with a successful lawsuit levied by female athletes over the lack of scholarships claiming unconstitutional discrimination against women (Smith, 2021). The AIAW ceased as an organization in 1983 and along with it, the attempt to shield women’s sports against the exploitative commercial model experienced by their male counterparts (Smith, 2021).

Even with Title IX (renamed the Patsy Takemoto Mink Equal Opportunity in Education Act) written into law, serious implementation did not occur until decades later (Hextrum and Sethi, 2021) with the passing of the 1987 Civil Rights Restoration Act (Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987, 1988) and further support from the Supreme Court in 1992 allow students to seek monetary damages under Title IX (Drew, 2022). Title IX on paper insured females had equal opportunities in sports and equally as important—access to sports to include scholarships and benefits (Steven, 2004). A simple hope of the impact of Title IX was to allow access to women to undiscriminated education and increase in female participation in sports. The National Federation of High School Association (as referenced in Buchanan, 2012) stated the number of girls playing high school sports prior to Title IX was 300,000—as compared to a phenomenal growth of over three million in 2011. While the spirit of the federal law is the elimination of discrimination based on the traditional binary definition of gender (male–female), the operationalization of the law is often born in a courtroom as gender portfolios of athletes have changed and discrimination takes on a more expansive definition. In simple terms, Title IX (20 U.S.C. § 1691(b) retrieved from: https://www.justice.gov/crt/title-ix-education-amendments-1972) supports a three-part test that is generally upheld in court:

1. numbers of males and females participating in athletics are substantially proportional to enrollment numbers; or

2. the school has a history and practice of program expansion that is in line with the interest of the underrepresented sex; or

3. the school’s current programs accommodate the interest of the underrepresented sex.

Further, legal work was done regarding Title IX on 27 June 2002, when the Secretary of the Department of Education wanted to collect information regarding this law’s effectiveness. After testimony and a review of documents, the committee decided that 23 recommendations needed to be made regarding Title IX—specifically ones that would limit the access women and girls would have regarding opportunities and scholarships (Drew, 2022). While there is an acknowledgment that Title IX has experienced some missteps, this federal law has been noted as the most successful civil rights statue in history (CoachAD.com, 2006).

Good/bad or both: the ongoing debate concerning females and sports

Although there is a growing collection of material published regarding females in sports, the idea that sports are not separate from society, rather a derived part of it is key in pushing forth the agenda of sports for females (Osborne and Skillen, 2015). According to Osborne and Skillen (2015), sports are a part of the embedded cultural practice, which has a historical reference on the institution of family, education, religion, and work. Females have always had other social and cultural requirements (i.e., childbearing and child-rearing) that may have prohibited them from participating in sports. Hanson (2007) makes the statement that science and sports are interrelated when it comes to females’ participation due to these being male-dominated fields. Females who do become successful in science or sports have a nontraditional background that includes nontraditional schooling and a progressive family background (Hanson, 2007). Girls are generally called upon less in science classes, and as adults, they have often been excluded from science-driven groups (Hanson, 2007). Dr. Mae Jemison, a NASA astronaut, provided an eloquent summary using her life as a backdrop for the issues surround Title IX, access to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM), and the lack of parity in education for females in her testimony at the U.S. Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor and Pensions (Jemison, NASA Astronaut, 2012). As a research-based fact, females are eliminated from some of the most up and coming fields in the job market like IT, Engineers, and even Medical Doctor when excluded from science and sports (Jemison, NASA Astronaut, 2012). As described in dominate paradigm language, it was a woman’s duty to become part of a culturally accepted social fabric and not play sports.

To further this conversation, Giuliano and Popp (2000) make the argument that playing with masculine toys and games, in predominantly mixed groups or males, led to tomboyish behaviors that later lead to females playing college sports. Practically, boys’ toys generally help with eye/hand coordination, independence, and problem-solving skills that are in direct contrast with girls’ toys that discourage all the above (Giuliano and Popp, 2000). How and what female children play may provide a bridge for the development of females to be athletes or not.

In direct contrast to those arguments, the National Coalition for Women & Girls in Education (NCWGE, 2012) in their analysis of the 40^th anniversary of Title IX touted short and long-term health benefits of this law in numbers that public health education and initiatives could not achieve. Significant issues such as a reduction in obesity and reducing the risk of breast cancer (NCWGE, 2012) and a significant reduction in unintended pregnancies in contrast to non-athletic peer groups are indeed successes of Title IX (National Women’s Law Center, 2012). In support of other research, women athletes report smoking less or becoming pregnant at a young age (Hanson, 2007). There are also reported public health benefits (such as the reduction of obesity) in female athletes (Buchanan, 2012). Additional research on the benefits of sports is summarize by the Women’s Sports Foundation (1999) that reported women who participate in sports tend to have better physical health. Other benefits of participation included in this report relate to better mental health than non-active peers, and a less than the national rate of eating disorders. Giuliano and Popp (2000) stated that playing sports has more than just a physical aspect on the female. For example, there are also psychological benefits (i.e., self-esteem, better body image, reduced stress, and depression) and academic benefits (i.e., higher test scores, lower educational dropout rates) which can be related to the benefits of physical activity particularly sports (Giuliano and Popp, 2000). While there are many overt and covert tracks of current opinions and research concerning females in sports, the momentum and desire of females to gain parity in sports, through education or commercial avenues, is fully established.

Issues across multiple systems

Females have encountered many issues over the years regarding collegiate access to education, sports, and even physical activity. Some of these issues surrounding access deal with the individual school’s interpretation of how to deliver the spirit of Title IX. While the law was meant to prohibit sexual discrimination (Buchanan, 2012), some schools see it as a costly handicap. The major issue is, even with Title IX in place, females still lack scholarship money, participation opportunities, budgets and other aspects of sports programming offered to male athletics. These institutions feel that funding non-revenue-generating females’ sports creates a detriment resulting in a loss of revenue generated by men’s sports. This effect can be seen throughout the sport to include competitive scholarships, ability to recruit, facilities, equipment, and travel schedules. Through current Title IX application, institutions still have room to make up their own interpretation especially regarding their budget, which can limit females’ athletics. While Title IX remains an integral part of the higher education landscape, it remains a significant topic of discussion that can be at times, divisive. Anderson (2012) notes that there are serious consequences—including the withdrawal of federal funding when schools are non-compliant with federal law. In addition to appointing a Title IX coordinator, they are tasked with assessing compliance and additional gender discrimination (Ferguson, 2014). Due to this aspect of compliance, this federal regulation has a higher potential of reaching the spirit of the law. As evidenced by the growth of girls and female youth sports all the way through to professional women’s sports, Title IX has exceeded its original intentions. Title IX legally insured women had equal opportunities in education, and equally as important—access to sports to include scholarships and benefits (Steven, 2004).

NCAA as a regulatory factor

Throughout the story of Title IX, one organization has remained a constant fixture: the NCAA.

It is not a surprise that the NCAA was conceived due to the popularity of football in the late 1800s and the subsequent injuries (particularly deaths of players) that had occurred (Bass et al., 2015). The initial meeting took place at the behest of President Roosevelt—resulting in an inaugural 62 intercollegiate membership formed the Intercollegiate Athletic Association of the United States (IAAUS) on March 1906 (Duderstadt, 2009; Zullo and Weight, 2015). Renamed the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), this organization set the groundwork for the continued power of athletics in a university setting with a focus on football coaches having the most economic and business authority (Bass et al., 2015). The 1970s produced significant changes for the NCAA: the first one was the creation of three divisions based on the number and amount of athletic scholarships that could be awarded; and the second one was the passing of Title IX (Bass et al., 2015). Bass et al. (2015) state that the NCAA did not immediately move to thwart the power of the newly minted AIAW; however, when money and media became involved, the NCAA made their membership extremely attractive to AIAW members and ultimately the AIAW closed its doors (Sperber, 1990).

The tenuous and inequitable relationship between the NCAA and the collegiate operationalization of Title IX where exposed in living color when Sedona Prince, an Oregon Ducks basketball player, posted a TikTok of the extreme disparities between the “March Madness” for men’s basketball and the women’s tournament (Sedona Prince, @sedonerrr). The disparities ranged from inadequate weight equipment, substandard food, minimal swag items, insufficient COVID test, conference planners having to report to the men’s March Madness planning board, and the inability to use the March Madness trademark (Egloff, 2022). An independent law firm completed a two-phase investigation that revealed issues dating back to 1972 that remain unresolved and protracted (Kaplan and Fink, 2021). In their report, Kaplan and Fink (2021, pgs. 50–51) summarized their findings:

The NCAA’s broadcast agreements, corporate sponsorships contracts, distribution of revenue, organizational structure and culture all prioritize Division 1 men’s basketball over everything else in ways that create, normalize, and perpetuate gender inequities.

MEDIA as an equity partner

A significant second issue surrounds the viewing of females’ sports on a broader scope like national television. This access of being viewed on national telivision can directly affect the continued sustainablity for a particular team - especially if that team relies on fan sales or telivision viewership for income. When a school’s female teams do not provide any or limited revenue generation, this can place a burden on the ability to develop a successful men’s team. There is a financial co-existence for both sexes. Zirin (2015) put forth that Serena Williams’ total package of personality and sheer skill launched females’ tennis beyond that of her counterparts. He further adds the U.S. Women’s World Cup ended with two things: (1) the greatest goal ever scored and (2) higher ratings than all games of the NBA finals (Zirin, 2015). Just recently, 2017 was the first year that all the sub-regional, regional, and national championship College Softball games were all aired on national television since softball has been played at a collegiate level.

According to Boxill (1995), the integration of females into the male-dominated arena of sports has not come without compromise, conflict, and sometimes confusion. In 1972, 90% of females’ sports were coached by females, currently in a reverse trend only 40% are coach by females in 2012 (Stuart, 2012). With the introduction of Title IX females and men are supposed to receive the same admission requirements but under the surface, this could lead to undiscovered bias (Boxill, 1995). Not only do females have to try and compete with other females, they also must compete with the hidden bias of men, such as height, weight, muscle mass, and speed (Boxill, 1995). Boxill (1995) makes the argument that females want to participate in sports just as much as men but do not want to be men, which is hard for outsiders to conceptualize. Boxill (1995) interestingly noted that there is a sport available for men in every body type that they have; this is not the case for females. Women are expected to be as physically fit as men regardless of the sport they are playing. Women still want to be feminine but complete at the highest level of athletics and get the same recognition that men get for their outstanding performance. Sports can offer a significant inference in the sports and business world, meaning it can provide opportunity, jobs, and promotions (Boxill, 1995). Many times, people believe that men should coach females sports because they know more about sports and can teach individuals better.

As Boxill (1995) states, there is much difference in physical appearances along with reproduction, body fat, and strength. Fisher (2016) makes the argument about can you be caring and be competitive on a collegiate level? This is a hurdle females must overcome to not be seen as too aggressive or insensitive. To further the conversations on genders roles, females are classified as lesbians if they want to play sports (Boxill, 1995). The concept of homophobia has made it difficult for females to participate in sports and to coach a sport. This public opinion is intended to gate-keep females out of the sports world. To further this conversation, females are seen as sex symbols and are often shown in provocative poses and not as athletes (Hall and Oglesby, 2016). In a negative twist, female athletes are seen as a lesbian or a sex symbol. This unfortunate dichotomy is what the outside world is trying to impose on women and girl athletes. Females also grow up in socio-economic markets with overwhelming hardship to include poverty, racism, heterosexism, disability, physical/sexual/emotional abuse (Rauscher and Cooky, 2015).

Although females’ participation and opportunities have increased in the last 20 years, the media presences have been less and less and somewhat dwindled (Hall and Oglesby, 2016). Females are 40% of the participants in sports but only receive around 4% of media coverage, making it hard for female athletes to be role models for younger girls (Hall and Oglesby, 2016). In support of the argument against Title IX compliance, Elfman (2023, pg. 26) states:

According to research by the Women’s Sports Foundation (WSF), the percentage of women athletes competing on college teams has risen from 15% in 1972 to 44% in the 2020-2021 academic year. But despite the increase, few institutions are in Title IX compliance.

Even a recent analysis of televised coverage of women’s sports (both professional and collegiate), revealed a slight increase in 2019 during the U.S. women’s soccer team victory, the Women’s World Cup and the U.S. women’s tennis competition; however, the standard viewing time is less than 5% with men’s sports receiving 95% of the airtime (Cooky et al., 2021). When looking at the NCAA regarding scholarships, the sheer numbers do not reflect the laws put in place by Title IX. The NCAA offers 80 scholarships to football programs but only 18 to women’s track and field (Stuart, 2012). Stuart (2012) then stated people make the implication that women’s sports are thriving at the expense of men sports and scholarships. With media, coverages come money with a substantial inequity in the amount paid to females compared what men make in professional sports (US Soccer Federation, 2022). The only realm that women make what men make as far as pay is professional tennis (Hall and Oglesby, 2016) and recently women’s soccer (retrieved from: https://www.goodmorningamerica.com/culture/story/us-soccer-federation-pay-22m-uswnt-players-gender-83036251).

Current status

Title IX has made an impact in the last 50 years as evidenced by the level of increased participation of females at various levels of sports activities. In the recent past, the numbers of female athletes include 150,916 college women and 2.78 million high school girls participating in competitive athletics in the United States (Stuart, 2012). In 2012, there is an average of 8.73 women’s teams per school, 9,247 intercollegiate teams, 13,792 female professionals employed in athletics, 3,974 coaches, 215 athletic directors, and 7,024 assistant coaches (Stuart, 2012). More current data from Reed (2022) states that the number of female athletes in 1971–1972 was listed as 32,000 in comparison to the 2019–2020 numbers of 224,000 female athletes. These numbers are demonstrative of the impact Title IX has had in the development of the history of women’s athletics. Although women are still on the lower end of sports participation than men, Hanson (2007) makes the statement that women account for 41% of high school athletes and 37% of college athletes, and an increasing number of women in professional sports in the United States. Sports may be more important for women to participate in than men due to the competitive nature of the world and workforce and the noted transferable skill sets learned on the playing field (Hanson, 2007). While participation is at an all-time high, there is still much work to be done. Women’s Sports Foundation reports with the 40th anniversary of Title IX’s passing, the number of girls participating in high school sports nationwide had risen greatly to more than three million. At the time of passing, approximately 190,000 women were competing in intercollegiate sports—six times as many as in 1972. According to Women’s Sports Foundation, in 2016, one in every five girls in the United States played sports (retrieved from: https://www.womenssportsfoundation.org/education/title-ix-and-the-rise-of-female-athletes-in-america/). Prior to the passing of Title IX, the number of females playing sports had been one in 27 (retrieved from: https://www.womenssportsfoundation.org/education/title-ix-and-the-rise-of-female-athletes-in-america/).

In contrast to this positive data, Smith (2016) reports females drop out of sports and hardly ever return. The reasons are a varied and complicated as life itself. Most often, starting a family and the lack of economic opportunity in sports are the most common factors (Smith, 2016). Women also stated that only about 35% of them were encouraged to play sports while men report encouragement at around 88%. This lack of encouragement and monetary support is seen at both ends of the game. While the NCAA makes it a requirement for women to be in the position of a Senior Women Administrator to help implement Title IX, women’s presence in coaching at the collegiate level has reached an all-time low (Stuart, 2012). Stuart (2012) reports only 40% of women’s teams are coached by women—this is a significant decrease since the creation of Title IX in 1972 when over 90% of women’s teams had women coaches. More recent data places the percentage of women coaches of female teams at 43% (Acosta and Carpenter, 2014). Added to this significant loss is the indefensible disparity in salaries $100,180 for men basketball coaches as compared to $44,996 for women basketball coaches (Davies, 2012). This reverse hiring is driven by the market…. which is driven by popularity of the sport and the athletes participating in it.

Equally as important are the most recent debates centered on the fluidity of gender designations as individual seek to gain equal access to scholarships and funding under Title IX. As earlier stated, Title IX seeks to eliminate discrimination based on the traditional binary definition of gender (male–female), the operationalization of the law is often born in a courtroom as gender portfolios of athletes have changed and discrimination attempst to take on a more expansive definition. The argument against state regulations and domination of women’s sports is detailed in Hextrum and Sethi (2021, pg. 661) stating “The state definition of sex and sex discrimination preserved masculine dominance.” Title IX—in its current language—along with the NCAA has not demonstrated the ability to address this issue—rather they are waiting for ultimate legal decisions to drive operationalized behavior.

Global influences

The impact of Title IX can be seen on a global level through the development of Sports, Gender, and Development (SGD). This development has taken place as a push through society and the intersectionality of business. As a component of Corporate Social Responsibility, businesses should engage in philanthropic events that respond to societal norms and consider issues and practices that are in the best interest of society (Freeman et al., 2010). Corporations have taken the initiative through the United Nations to enhance the “Girl Effect” meaning that girls are on the forefront of making changes for their communities and families. The Girl Effect has created major changes in corporations and developed institutions by making girls and women the public faces of corporate advertising (Calkin, 2015). The Nike Foundation was developed in 2004 by Nikes Corporate responsibility wing, in attempts to help with girls in poverty (Calkin, 2015). Although Nike stated that this is more of movement than a campaign, it can be seen on many platforms, such as Twitter, Web site, and YouTube channels (Calkin, 2015). Hayhurst (2011, pg. 533) has directly stated that SGD movement makes the argument that:

SGD has demonstrated that sports participation programmes (sic) lend women and girls, the opportunity to challenge and resist their domestic duties, improve their social networks and relations with communities, confront gender norms, boost self-confidence, advance communication skills and increase their ability to make decisions regarding their own well-being.

To further strengthen Nike’s corporate impact is the Girl Effect Video, I Dare You. I Dare You, uses a female narrator that calls out the misconceptions of modern females (Calkin, 2015). The negative impact of the misconceptions of females gender norms are further punctuated by demonstrating the positive impact of corporate investment in girls’ sports that show: lower HIV rates; decreased malnutrition, economic growth, improved family welfare (Calkin, 2015; Five Game-Changers Women’s Sports, 2006).

According to Stoffers (2017), the U.S. Women’s National Soccer team would be awarded $75,000 bonus by the U.S. Soccer Federation, but if the Men would have won, they would receive $400,000. This pay gap is not a new thing for women in sports, for example, women soccer players make 40% of the men’s salary (Stoffers, 2017). This is not any different in the United States Workforce; according to the US Census Bureau, men make 21 cents more on the dollar than women. Some experts will argue that the reason for the pay gap in sports is the revenue brought in by the specific sport. The only exception with this argument currently is the case for soccer. Women’s soccer estimated revenue is around $9 million which is more than the men will bring in (Stoffers, 2017). This supports the claim that women athletic salaries are based on gender bias and not true revenue-generating capacity.

Future implications

Factually, Title IX is a federal policy whose direct application across colleges and universities takes on many shapes. As this policy ages, the changes it creates have made a lasting imprint at a global level. While the law did not seek to change attitudes, it has in fact achieved this feat. Attitudes are “a set of emotions, beliefs, and behaviors toward a particular object, person, thing, or event” (The Components of Attitude, para 1, retrieved from: https://www.verywellmind.com/attitudes-how-they-form-change-shape-behavior-2795897). The concept of individuals have concerning attitudes are shaped by their upbringing and life experiences (The Components of Attitude, para 1). The experience of playing sports for women has changed and shaped their lives both during play and long after the game is over. This experience is not seen as a singular event; rather it is a participatory event that changes the attitude of the environmental footprint.

The exploration of future implications for Title IX will be framed using micro, mezzo, and macro-orientation (www.socialworkdegreeguide.com/faq/what-is-mezzo-social-work; Mezzo Social Work, 2023). The micro level involves working with the individual female athlete or a small number of athletes. The mezzo level would include teams and their immediate support systems. The macro level generally deals with large groups, business entities, government agencies or corporations. Intuitively, there is fluidity between levels that push influence. Individual and public opinion can frame politics, which in turn frames legislation as evidenced by the passing and subsequent litigations surrounding Title IX.

Micro implications

Influence on an individual level varies from the dream of a child and the support of a parent to a public service announcement on super women athletes such as the NCAA PSA: Done (2016), featuring Natalie Coughlin, Misty May-Treanor (beach volleyball), and Chiney Ogwumike (basketball): (https://swimswam.com/natalie-coughlin-featured-ncaa-psa-done-commercial/). What is critical to creating positive influence is crafting a message that also provides positive information. As this positive information is viewed by the individual, it actuates change. As proposed by Dr. Jemison (2012), females need exposure, expectations, and experiences that fuel the individual desire to accomplish great things.

Working against these positive benefits is the research by Smith (2016) reporting women drop out of sports and hardly ever return. While there are a variety of environmental reasons on a micro level, Smith (2016) found that only about 35% of women were encouraged to play sports while 88% men in this study were encouraged to play sports. Ongoing support at the individual and family level can increase a long-term dedication to life-time growth.

Boxill (1995) makes the reference that women do not have access to compete in certain sports or even with men on co-ed teams. Boxill (1995) puts forth the paradigm shift of creating sports more focused on the women’s ideal body type. Boxill (1995) continued stating that men do not even use the same equipment and compete on the same level as each other, so why would women be held to this standard? The popular argument is made that if women want to compete in sports, they should do so the same way men do (i.e., same size basketball as men) (Boxill, 1995). The questions can then be proposed: should women compete on men’s teams, and would this give those women greater opportunities? Despite the diversity of thoughts concerning women and parity in education, sports, and work, an individual can make an impact.

Mezzo implications

The argument of gender equality centers on the counter that it can only occur at the expense of male students (Stuart, 2012). The negativity surrounding female behavior in sports is presented in the PSA: Always #LikeAGirl (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XjJQBjWYDTs). In this video, running, hitting, fighting, or swimming like a girl is made fun of until premier NCAA women athletes dispel this attitude. The persistence of negative attitudes concerning female participation in sports lies juxtaposes the argument that money is taken from revenue-generating male sports and given to less popular women’s sports in the name of equality (Stuart, 2012). Adding to this argument of unfairness is the paucity of semi-professional or professional sports college women athletes can matriculate into. It appears at the mezzo level; the benefits of women playing sports found at the micro level are lost due to the budgetary limitations of colleges.

Of additional importance at the mezzo level is the lack of mentoring for female athletes by other females. Stuart (2012) reports only 40% of women’s teams are coached by women—this is a significant decrease since the creation of Title IX in 1972 when over 90% of women’s teams had women coaches. At the mezzo level, corporate social responsibility such as that displayed by Dick’s Sporting Goods during the 2021 Women’s March Madness can turn the tide of public opinion and their collective wallets (Meisenzahl, 2021).

Macro implications

Youth parks and recreations are trying to assist in getting young girls to compete in sports by offering more opportunities and not giving preferential treatment to males (Learn, 2014). The parks and recreation are also making sure that there is a safe and comfortable environment with zero tolerance for violence and sexist behaviors toward young girls and their role models (Learn, 2014). Youth sports participation - particular for girls, can lead to development in the areas that Learn (2014) calls the 5C’s which include: competence, character, confidence, connection, caring and a sixth C—contributions to the community (Rauscher and Cooky, 2015). Wren and Benson (2004) make the statement that there are four internal assets (commitment to learning, positive identity, decision making, and healthy lifestyle) and two external assets (positive peer influence and service to others) that are necessary for youth to become healthy thriving adults. Positive youth programs can assist in limiting violence, aggression, and cheating which in return makes better overall individuals (Coakley 2011; Holt and Neely 2011). Although youth programs try to address gender issues, they still do not address race, ethnicity, social class, and sexuality, which can create further problems for those who are not privileged (Rauscher and Cooky, 2015).

Conclusion

The oldest documented sporting event dates back multiple centuries ago. This documented event was the Olympic Games in 760 BC (History of Sports, 2023) where there was only one event that took place—a footrace (retrieved from http://www.topendsports.com/resources/history.htm). In comparison, the serious implementation of competitive women’s sports began within the last quarter of the 20^th century, ushered in with the passing of Title IX in 1972. The past 50 years have seen the impact of women’s perseverance to participate fully in the world of sports. This perseverance and the transferable skills learned in sports are also seen in the business world. This short amount of time has seen exponential growth in skill and achievements in comparison to the previous centuries of segregated sports and economic division. What is additionally evident is the impact social media plays in support of this endeavor. As is with dramatic paradigm shifts, there remains much work to be done regarding women and their access to the same choices men enjoy. It is evident sports is one of the common experiences of this planet. Sports can build a bridge spanning cultural, social, gender, economic, and even governmental barriers. As stated by the actor in the Nike Video I Dare You. I Dare You, Calkin (2015: 659) challenges the viewer:

I dare you to look at me and see only a statistic, someone you’ll never meet, a tragedy, a commodity, a child bride. I dare you to look at me with pity, fatigue, dismissal. I dare you to look at me as more than a poster for your cause, a promise you want to keep. I dare you to look at me and see I am the answer. I dare you to rethink what it means to look at a girl: not a burden, not an object, but the answer.