Airborne toxicants such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs) increase the risk of inducing or exacerbating cardiometabolic disease. The Environmental Protection Agency prioritizes Superfund sites based on the level of contamination and the likelihood that a site poses a threat to human health or the environment.
Purpose
This paper proposes an alternative approach to prioritizing Superfund sites with VOC contamination by focusing on the size and health status of nearby populations.
Research Design
As a case study, we examine relevant data sources and assess how they characterize place-based cardiovascular health risk and disease burden among populations residing near Superfund sites in Kentucky.
Results and Conclusion
Our findings suggest an approach to more effectively protect public health in areas where VOC exposure may amplify existing cardiometabolic risks, thereby guiding state and local governments in decisions regarding site remediation and healthcare resource allocation.
KiaghadiARifaiHSDawsonCN. The presence of superfund sites as a determinant of life expectancy in the United States. Nat Commun2021; 12(1): 1947.
2.
MaranvilleARTingTFZhangY. An environmental justice analysis: superfund sites and surrounding communities in Illinois. Environ Justice2009; 2(2): 49–58.
3.
WebberWBStoneR. Incidence of non-Hodgkin lymphoma and residential proximity to superfund sites in Kentucky. J Environ Health2017; 80(1): 22–29.
4.
WilliamsonDMWhiteMCPooleC, et al.Evaluation of serum immunoglobulins among individuals living near six superfund sites. Environ Health Persp2006; 114(7): 1065–1071.
LandriganPJWrightROCorderoJF, et al.The NIEHS superfund research program: 25 years of translational research for public health. Environ Health Perspect2015; 123(10): 909–918.
7.
HanessSJWarwickJJ. Evaluating the hazard ranking system. J Environ Manage1991; 32(2): 165–176.
8.
McMullinTSBamberAMBonD, et al.Exposures and health risks from volatile organic compounds in communities located near oil and gas exploration and production activities in Colorado (USA). Int J Env Res Pub He2018; 15(7): 1500.
9.
BrenderJDMaantayJAChakrabortyJ. Residential proximity to environmental hazards and adverse health outcomes. Am J Public Health2011; 101(Suppl 1): S37–S52.
10.
VaduganathanMMensahGATurcoJV, et al.The global burden of cardiovascular diseases and risk: a compass for future health. J Am Coll Cardiol2022; 80(25): 2361–2371.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. Fourth five-year review report for Maxey flats disposal site, Fleming County, Kentucky. EPA Region 4. https://semspub.epa.gov/work/04/11070122.pdf (2017, accessed 2025 May 7).
15.
United States Environmental ProtectionAgency.Fifth five-year review report for Tri-city disposal company superfund site, brooks, Bullitt County, Kentucky. EPA Region 4. https://semspub.epa.gov/work/04/11111973.pdf(2018, accessed 2025 May 7).
16.
United States Environmental ProtectionAgency.Fifth five-year review report for Distler Brickyard superfund site, Hardin County. Kentucky. https://semspub.epa.gov/work/04/11111971.pdf(2018, accessed 2025 May 7).
17.
United States Environmental ProtectionAgency.Fifth five-year review report for Green River disposal superfund site, daviess county, Kentucky. Region 4. https://semspub.epa.gov/work/HQ/100003136.pdf(2021, accessed 2025 May 7).
18.
United States Environmental ProtectionAgency.Sixth FYR report for Smith’s farm superfund site, Bullitt county, Kentucky. https://semspub.epa.gov/work/04/11166411.pdf(2021, accessed 2025 May 7).
19.
United States Environmental ProtectionAgency.Sixth FYR report for Distler farm superfund site, Jefferson County, Kentucky. https://semspub.epa.gov/work/04/11111970.pdf(2023, accessed 2025 May 7).
20.
United States Environmental Protection Agency. CY 2023 five-year review for remedial actions at the Paducah Gaseous Diffusion Plant superfund site. Kentucky. https://semspub.epa.gov/work/04/11199547.pdf(2023, accessed 2025 May 7).
21.
United States Environmental ProtectionAgency.Fifth five-year review report for National electric coil co./cooper industries superfund site, Harlan county, Kentucky. Region 4. https://semspub.epa.gov/work/HQ/100004068.pdf(2023, accessed 2025 May 7).
22.
United States Environmental ProtectionAgency.Sixth five-year review report for B.F. Goodrich superfund site, Marshall County, Kentucky. https://semspub.epa.gov/work/HQ/100004942.pdf(2024, accessed 2025 May 7).
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Agency for toxic substances and disease registry (ATSDR); geospatial Research, Analysis, and Services Program (GRASP). CDC/ATSDR Social Vulnerability Index (SVI) 2022 database. https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/placeandhealth/svi/data_documentation_download.html (2022, accessed 2025 September 30).
27.
HadleyMBVedanthanRFusterV. Air pollution and cardiovascular disease: a window of opportunity. Nat Rev Cardiol2018; 15: 193–194.
28.
ChoiYHKimJHLeeBE, et al.Urinary benzene metabolite and insulin resistance in elderly adults. Sci Total Environ2014; 482-483: 260–268.
29.
DebarbaLKJayarathneHSStilgenbauerL, et al.Microglia mediate metabolic dysfunction from common air pollutants through NF-κB signaling. Diabetes2024; 73(12): 2065–2077.
30.
AbplanalpWTWickramasingheNSSithuSD, et al.Benzene exposure induces insulin resistance in mice. Toxicol Sci2019; 167(2): 426–437.
31.
XiaoZHLiQGuoX, et al.Long-term exposure to ambient benzene and incident type 2 diabetes mellitus in a national cohort: the modifying effect of genetic susceptibility. Environ Res2025; 284: 122197.
32.
JiGWangYLuZ, et al.Associations between ambient benzene and stroke, and the mediating role of accelerated biological aging: findings from the UK biobank. Environ Pollut2025; 367: 125656.
33.
MalovichkoMVAbplanalpWTMcFallSA, et al.Subclinical markers of cardiovascular toxicity of benzene inhalation in mice. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol2021; 431: 115742.
34.
AbplanalpWDeJarnettNRiggsDW, et al.Benzene exposure is associated with cardiovascular disease risk. PLoS One2017; 12(9): e0183602.
35.
ZelkoINHussainAMalovichkoMV, et al.Benzene metabolites increase vascular permeability by activating heat shock proteins and Rho GTPases. Toxicol Sci2025; 206(1): 111–122.
ZhouLXiongYSeraF, et al.Associations of ambient exposure to benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene with daily mortality: a multicountry time-series study in 757 global locations. Lancet Planet Health2025; 9: 101306.
38.
McLeodAAMarjotRMonaghanMJ, et al.Chronic cardiac toxicity after inhalation of 1,1,1-trichloroethane. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed)1987; 294(6574): 727–729.
39.
SnyderRAndrewsLS. Toxic effects of solvents and vapors. In: KlaassenCDAmdurMODoullJ (eds). Casarett and Doull’s toxicology: The basic science of poisons. 5th ed.McGraw-Hill Companies, 1996, pp. 737–771.
40.
CooperGSMakrisSLNietertPJ, et al.Evidence of autoimmune-related effects of trichloroethylene exposure from studies in mice and humans. Environ Health Perspect2009; 117(5): 696–702.
KhadkeSKumarAAl-KindiS, et al.Association of environmental injustice and cardiovascular diseases and risk factors in the United States. J Am Heart Assoc2024; 13(7): e033428.
44.
JungYSChiangSAthniTS, et al.Characterizing everyday exposure to volatile organic compounds and upper respiratory health effects. Sci Rep2025; 15(1): 23555.
45.
McGrawKEDomingo-RellosoARiggsDW, et al.Exposure to volatile organic compounds and blood pressure in NHANES 2011 to 2018. Hypertension2025; 82(1): 136–148.
46.
McGrawKERiggsDWRaiS, et al.Exposure to volatile organic compounds–acrolein, 1, 3-butadiene, and crotonaldehyde–is associated with vascular dysfunction. Environ Res2021; 196: 110903.
47.
RiggsDWMalovichkoMVGaoH, et al.Environmental exposure to volatile organic compounds is associated with endothelial injury. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol2022; 437: 115877.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
