A Systematic Review of 3D Printing in Craniofacial Surgical Simulation Education

Abstract

Background:

Surgical simulation offers an opportunity for trainees to practice complex surgeries in a controlled setting. Three-dimensional (3D) printing is a growing technology that can provide a low-cost method of generating patient-specific simulation models. This study systematically evaluated applications, cost, and outcomes of 3D-printed models in craniofacial surgical simulation.

Methods:

A systematic review was conducted and PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, Cochrane, and Scopus were searched on June 16, 2025. Articles that examined 3D-printed models used for simulation in craniofacial procedures, involved surgeons or trainees, and provided evaluation data were included. Data extracted included anatomy printed, simulator design, costs, and outcomes after implementing simulation. Risk of bias and confidence were assessed using the Medical Education Research Study Quality Instrument and GRADE, respectively.

Results:

Thirty-six studies met inclusion criteria. Printer costs ranged $120 to $500,000 while per-construct costs ranged $2 to $750. 3D-printed models included cleft lip/palate (n = 18), skull models (n = 8), mandible/maxilla models (n = 6), nasal models (n = 3), and an orbit model (n = 1). Twenty-seven studies (75%) reported quantitative outcomes; every study showed significant improvements in knowledge, technical execution, or operative efficiency. All studies assessed qualitative outcomes; participants found 3D-printed models realistic and beneficial, reporting enhanced anatomical understanding and overall high face validity.

Conclusions:

Compared to traditional learning methods, 3D-printed simulators for craniofacial surgeries may enhance trainee procedural preparedness by improving anatomical understanding, technical skills, and confidence. Future research should emphasize the impact of how preoperative 3D printed surgical simulation can reduce operating room time and improve operative performance.