A DisCrit Perspective on College and Career Readiness for Youth With Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

Abstract

Despite the increased focus on college and career readiness programs in schools, students with disabilities remain inadequately prepared for postsecondary education (e.g., trade schools, college, and university) or jobs/careers. Disparate outcomes along race and disability classifications in academic and postsecondary outcomes are indicated in national data. With better grounding in a Disability Studies and Critical Race Theory (DisCrit) perspective and vocational development, educators and school-based mental health professionals can more effectively aim to improve college and career outcomes for children of color with a label of emotional and behavioral disorder (EBD). To that end, this manuscript provides an overview of the critical issues faced by children of color with EBD, particularly as they concern college and career readiness outcomes, and offers recommendations for research and practice.

Keywords

career development adolescents disability/ability intersectionality

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Adair

J. K.

Colegrove

K. S. S.

McManus

M. E.

(2017). How the word gap argument negatively impacts young children of Latinx immigrants’ conceptualizations of learning. Harvard Educational Review, 87(3), 309–334. https://doi.org/10.17763/1943-5045-87.3.309

American Psychological Association. (2014). Guidelines for prevention in psychology. The American Psychologist, 69(3), 285–296. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034569

American School Counselor Association. (2019). The ASCA National Model: A framework for school counseling programs (4th ed.).

Annamma

S. A.

Connor

Ferri

(2013). Dis/ability critical race studies (DisCrit): Theorizing at the intersections of race and dis/ability. Race Ethnicity and Education, 16(1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2012.730511

Annamma

S. A.

Ferri

B. A.

Connor

D. J.

(2018). Disability critical race theory: Exploring the intersectional lineage, emergence, and potential futures of DisCrit in education. Review of Research in Education, 42(1), 46–71. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X18759041

Aud

Hussar

Johnson

Kena

Roth

Manning

Wang

Zhang

(2012). The condition of education 2012 (NCES 2012-045). U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch

Blake-Beard

Bayne

M. L.

Crosby

F. J.

Muller

C. B.

(2011). Matching by race and gender in mentoring relationships: Keeping our eyes on the prize. Journal of Social Issues, 67(3), 622–643. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2011.01717.x

Blustein

D. L.

(2008). The role of work in psychological health and well-being: A conceptual, historical, and public policy perspective. American Psychologist, 63(4), 228–240. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.63.4.228

Blustein

D. L.

Ali

S. R.

Flores

L. Y.

(2019). Vocational psychology: Expanding the vision and enhancing the impact. The Counseling Psychologist, 47(2), 166–221. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000019861213

10.

Bonifacio

Gushue

G. V.

Mejia-Smith

B. X.

(2018). Microaggressions and ethnic identity in the career development of Latina college students. The Counseling Psychologist, 46(4), 505–529. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000018776909

11.

Broderick

A. A.

Leonardo

(2016). What a good boy. In Connor

D. J.

Ferri

B. A.

Annamma

S. A.

(Eds.), DisCrit—Disability studies and critical race theory in education (pp. 55–67). Teachers College Press.

12.

Bryan-Gooden

Hester

Peoples

L. Q.

(2023). Culturally responsive ELA curriculum scorecard. Metropolitan Center for Research on Equity and the Transformation of Schools, New York University.

13.

Buford

M. V.

Flores

L. Y.

(2024). Centering race in career development: A critical review of career scholarship and practice. Journal of Career Development, 52(2), 195–213. https://doi.org/10.1177/08948453241309017.

14.

Cadenas

G. A.

McWhirter

E. H.

(2022). Critical consciousness in vocational psychology: A vision for the next decade and beyond. Journal of Career Assessment, 30(3), 411–435. https://doi.org/10.1177/10690727221086553

15.

Castro

E. L.

(2013). Racialized readiness for college and career: Toward and equity-grounded social science of intervention programming. Community College Review, 41(4), 292–310. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091552113504291

16.

Conkel-Ziebell

J. L.

Gushue

G. V.

Turner

S. L.

(2019). Anticipation of racism and sexism: Factors related to setting career goals for urban youth of color. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 66(5), 588–599. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000357

17.

Cook

A. L.

Brodsky

Gracia

Morizio

L. J.

(2019). Exploring multicultural and social justice counseling training outcomes on school counselor and youth development. Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation, 10(2), 78–93. https://doi.org/10.1080/21501378.2017.1422681

18.

Davis

M. T.

Cumming

I. K.

(2019). Practical strategies for improving postsecondary outcomes for students with EBD. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 63(4), 325–333. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2019.1608898

19.

DeMatthews

(2020). Addressing racism and ableism in schools: A DisCrit leadership framework for principals. The Clearing House, 93(1), 27–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/00098655.2019.1690419

20.

Diemer

M. A.

Blustein

D. L.

(2006). Critical consciousness and career development among urban youth. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 68(2), 220–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2005.07.001

21.

Dover

A. G.

(2016). Teaching for social justice and the Common Core: Justice-oriented curriculum for language arts and literacy. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 59(5), 517–527. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaal.488

22.

Duffy

R. D.

Blustein

D. L.

Diemer

M. A.

Autin

K. L.

(2016). The psychology of working theory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 63(2), 127. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000140

23.

Duffy

R. D.

Kim

H. J.

Perez

Prieto

C. G.

Torgal

Kenny

M. E.

(2022). Decent education as a precursor to decent work: An overview and construct conceptualization. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 138(1), 103771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2022.103771

24.

Dweck

C. S.

(2008). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Ballantine Books.

25.

Freeman

Carter

Kern

Liang

Rosati

S. A.

Sinnott

Mui

(2025). Race and gender representation in college and career readiness research for students with emotional behavioral disorders. Career Development and Transition Services for Exceptional Individuals, 48(1), 47–56. https://doi.org/10.1177/21651434231211562

26.

Fritsch

McGuire

(2021). We move together (E. Trejos, Illus.). AK Press.

27.

Gilson

C. B.

Sinclair

Whirley

M. L.

Y. F.

Blustein

D. L.

(2022). “More than a job, it’sa purpose”: A psychology of working perspective of the working experiences for individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Journal of Career Assessment, 30(2), 367–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/21651434231186136

28.

Grindal

Schifter

L. A.

Schwartz

Hehir

(2019). Racial differences in special education identification and placement: Evidence across three states. Harvard Educational Review, 89(4), 525–553. https://doi.org/10.17763/1943-5045-89.4.525

29.

Hines

E. M.

Mayes

R. D.

Harris

P. C.

Vega

(2021). Using a culturally responsive MTSS approach to prepare Black males for postsecondary opportunities. School Psychology Review, 52(3), 357–371. https://doi.org/10.1080/2372966X.2021.2018917

30.

Iqtadar

Hern

D. I.

Ellison

(2020). “If it wasn’t my race, it was other things like being a woman, or my disability”: A qualitative research synthesis of disability research. Disability Studies Quarterly, 40(2). https://doi.org/10.18061/dsq.v40i2.6881

31.

Juntunen

C. L.

Even

C. E.

(2012). Theories of vocational psychology. In Fouad

N. A.

Carter

J. A.

Subich

L. M.

(Eds.), APA handbook of counseling psychology, Vol. 1: Theories, research, and methods. (pp. 237–267). American Psychological Association.

32.

Kenny

M. E.

Tsai

B. W.

(2020). Person- and system-focused prevention in preparing youth to navigate an uncertain work future. Journal of Prevention and Health Promotion, 1(2), 155–182. https://doi.org/10.1177/2632077020965568

33.

Kern

Kelly

Rosati

S. A.

Shera

Fluharty

Gabrilowitz

Carter

Liang

C. T. H.

Freeman

(2023). Systematic review of college and career readiness interventions for students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 46(3), 155–168. https://doi.org/10.1177/21651434221136132

34.

Lazar

A. M.

Nicolino

(2019). Getting comfortable with the uncomfortable: conversations about race, culture, and transformative pedagogy in an urban-based professional learning community. In Sharma

Lazar

A. M.

(Eds.), Rethinking 21st century diversity in teacher preparation, K-12 education, and school policy (pp. 171–189). Springer.

35.

Lee-Rambharose

Smith

L. D.

The

Horner-Johnson

Long-Bellil

Watkins

Senda

Garr-Colzie

Palacios

M. R.

Mitra

(2024). Inclusion of Black and Latina parents with physical disabilities in a qualitative research study: A peer researcher training model. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 23, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069231207771

36.

Liang

C. T. H.

Rosati

S. A.

Fluharty

Gabrilowitz

Carter

Mui

Kern

Freeman

(2024). A DisCrit critique of practices for youth with or at risk of emotional and behavioral disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 32(1), 36–46. https://doi.org/10.1177/10634266221141064

37.

Lindstrom

Kahn

L. G.

Lindsey

(2013). Navigating the early career years: Barriers and strategies for young adults with disabilities. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 39(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3233/JVR-130637

38.

Lipscomb

Hamison

Burghardt

Johnson

D. R.

Thurlow

(2017). Preparing for life after high school: The characteristics and experiences of youth in special education. Findings from the National Longitudinal Transition Study 2012. Volume 2: Comparisons across Disability Groups (Full report. NCEE 2017-4018). National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance.

39.

Lombardi

A. R.

Freeman

Rifenbark

G. G.

(2018). Modeling college and career readiness for adolescents with and without disabilities: A bifactor approach. Exceptional Children, 84(2), 159–176. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402917731557

40.

Lombardi

A. R.

Kowitt

J. S.

Staples

F. E.

(2015). Correlates of critical thinking and college and career readiness for students with and without disabilities. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 38(3), 142–151. https://doi.org/10.1177/2165143414534888

41.

Lombardi

A. R.

Rifenbark

G. G.

Hicks

Taconet

Challenger

(2022). College and career readiness support for youth with and without disabilities based on the National Longitudinal Transition Study 2012. Exceptional Children, 89(1), 5–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/00144029221088940

42.

Love

H. R.

Beneke

M. R.

(2021). Pursuing justice-driven inclusive education research: disability critical race theory (DisCrit) in early childhood. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 41(1), 31–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121421990833

43.

Masdonati

Massoudi

Blustein

D. L.

Duffy

R. D.

(2022). Moving toward decent work: Application of the psychology of working theory to the school-to-work transition. Journal of Career Development, 49(1), 41–59. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845321991681

44.

Matias

C. E.

Liou

D. D.

(2015). Tending to the heart of communities of color: Towards critical race teacher activism. Urban Education, 50(5), 601–625. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085913519338

45.

McWhirter

E. H.

Cendejas

Fleming

Martínez

Mather

Garcia

Romero

Ortega

R. I.

Rojas-Araúz

B. O.

(2021). College and career ready and critically conscious: Asset-building with Latinx immigrant youth. Journal of Career Assessment, 29(3), 525–542. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072720987986

46.

McWhirter

E. H.

McWha-Hermann

(2021). Social justice and career development: Progress, problems, and possibilities. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 126, 103492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2020.103492

47.

Migliarini

Annamma

S.A.

(2020). Classroom and behavior management: (Re)conceptualization through disability critical race theory. In Papa

(Eds.), Handbook on promoting social justice in education (pp. 1 – 22). Springer.

48.

Mitchell

B. S.

Kern

Conroy

M. A.

(2019). Supporting students with emotional or behavioral disorders: State of the field. Behavioral Disorders, 44(2), 70–84. https://doi.org/10.1177/0198742918816518

49.

Morningstar

M. E.

Lombardi

Fowler

C. H.

Test

D. W.

(2017). A college and career readiness framework for secondary students with disabilities. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 40(2), 79–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/2165143415589926

50.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2023). Public high school graduation rates. Condition of Education. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. Retrieved October 23, 2023, from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/coi

51.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2024). High school graduation rates. Condition of Education. U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences. Retrieved November 10, 2024, from https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator/coi

52.

National Center for Learning Disabilities (NCLD). (2020). Significant disproportionality in special education: Current trends and actions for impact.

53.

National Governors Association Center for Best Practices, & Council of Chief State School Officers. (2010). Common core state standards (reading). http://corestandards.org/

54.

Naugle

Campbell

T. A.

Gray

N. D.

(2010). Post-secondary transition model for students with disabilities. Journal of School Counseling, 8(40), 1–31. http://www.jsc.montana.edu/articles/v8n40.pdf

55.

Office of Special Education Programs. (2021). OSEP fast facts: Children identified with emotional disturbance. https://sites.ed.gov/idea/osep-fast-facts-looks-at-race-and-ethnicity-of-children-with-disabilities-served-under-idea/

56.

Petit-McClure

S. H.

Stinson

(2019). Disrupting dis/abilization: A critical exploration of research methods to combat White supremacy and ableism in education. Intersections: Critical Issues in Education, 3(2), 73–90. https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/intersections/vol3/iss2/4

57.

Sallese

M. R.

Garwood

J. D.

Vannest

K. J.

Kolbe

Carlson

(2024). Definitions of and evaluation procedures for emotional disturbance: A tale of 50 states. Behavioral Disorders, 49(2), 106–115 https://doi.org/10.1177/01987429231215352.

58.

Scott

L. A.

Shogren

K. A.

(2023). Advancing anti-racism and anti-ableism in transition: Equity-oriented indicators for research. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 46(4), 237–248. https://doi.org/10.1177/21651434231189665

59.

Scott

L. A

Thoma

C. A.

Gokita

Bruno

Ruiz

B. A.

Brendli

Taylor

J. P.

Vitullo

(2021). I’m trying to make myself happy: Black students with intellectual and developmental disabilities and parents on promoting self-determination during transition. Inclusion, 9(3), 170–188. https://doi.org/10.1352/2326-6988-9.3.170

60.

Shera

Blasko

Kern

Liang

Freeman

(2025). College and career ready (or not): A systematic review of programs in alternative settings for youth. Career Development and Transition Services for Exceptional Individuals, 48(3), 175– 187. https://doi.org/10.1177/21651434241255076

61.

Shikarpurya

Gilson

C. B.

Dunn

C. M.

Fletcher

K. E.

(2024). Exploring transition planning among racially minoritized parents of children with intellectual and developmental disabilities using DisCrit and QuantCrit. Inclusion, 12(4), 227–241. https://doi.org/10.1352/2326-6988-12.4.227

62.

Symonds

W. C.

Schwartz

Ferguson

R. F.

(2011). Pathways to prosperity: Meeting the challenge of preparing young Americans. Pathways to Prosperity Project at Harvard Graduate School of Education.

63.

Thorius

K. A. K.

Santamaría Graff

(2018). Extending peer-assisted learning strategies for racially, linguistically, and ability diverse learners. Intervention in School and Clinic, 53(3), 163–170. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053451217702113

64.

Zabek

Lyons

M. D.

Alwani

Taylor

J. V.

Brown-Meredith

Cruz

M. A.

Southall

V. H.

(2023). Roles and functions of school mental health professionals within comprehensive school mental health systems. School Mental Health, 15(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-022-09535-0