Sexual violence (SV) and intimate partner violence (IPV), which often co-occur with bullying, are serious public health issues underscoring the need for primary prevention. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of a community-building SV and IPV prevention program, Green Dot Community, on adolescents’ perceptions of community social norms and their propensity to intervene as helpful actionists using two independent data sources. Green Dot Community takes place in towns and aims to influence all town members to prevent SV and IPV by addressing protective factors (i.e., collective efficacy, positive prevention social norms, and bystander helping, or actionism). In the current study, one town received Green Dot Community (the prevention-enhanced town), and two towns received prevention as usual (i.e., awareness and fundraising events by local IPV and SV advocacy centers). The program was evaluated using a two-part method: (a) A cross-sectional sample of high school students from three rural communities provided assessment of protective factors at two time points (Time 1, n = 1,187; Time 2, n = 877) and (b) Youth Risk Behavior Survey data from the state Department of Health were gathered before and after program implementation (Time 1, n = 2,034; Time 2, n = 2,017) to assess victimization rates. Youth in the prevention-enhanced town reported higher collective efficacy and more positive social norms specific to helping in situations of SV and IPV over time but did not differ on bystander behaviors or on victimization rates. Community-based prevention initiatives may be helpful in changing community norms to prevent SV/IPV.
AndersonL. A.WhistonS. C. (2005). Sexual assault education programs: A meta-analytic examination of their effectiveness. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29(4), 374–388. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2005.00237.x
2.
AnsariS. (2013). Social capital and collective efficacy: Resource and operating tools of community social control. Journal of Theoretical & Philosophical Criminology, 5(2), 75–94. http://www.jtpcrim.org/July-2013/SA.pdf
3.
BanyardV. L.EdwardsK. M.JonesL.MitchellK. (2020). Poly-strengths and peer violence perpetration: What strengths can add to risk factor analyses. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 49(3), 735–746. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-020-01197-y
4.
BanyardV. L.EdwardsK. M.RizzoA. J. (2019). “What would the neighbors do?” Measuring sexual and domestic violence prevention social norms among youth and adults. Journal of Community Psychology, 47(8), 1817–833. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22201
5.
BanyardV. L.EdwardsK. M.SieboldW. L. (2017). Involving community in sexual violence prevention: Engaging bystanders. In SturmeyP. (Ed.), The Wiley handbook of violence and aggression (Vol. 3, pp. 1–2). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119057574.whbva122
6.
BanyardV. L.MoynihanM. M.PlanteE. G. (2007). Sexual violence prevention through bystander education: An experimental evaluation. Journal of Community Psychology, 35(4), 463–481. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.20159
7.
BanyardV. L.RizzoA. J.BencosmeY.CaresA. C.MoynihanM. M. (2018). How community and peer perceptions promote college students’ pro-social bystander actions to prevent sexual violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518777557
8.
BanyardV. L.RizzoA. J.EdwardsK. (2020). Community actionists: Understanding adult bystanders to sexual and domestic violence prevention in communities. Psychology of Violence, 10(5), 531–541. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000281
BlackM. C.BasileK. C.BreidingM. J.SmithS. G.WaltersM. L.MerrickM. T.ChenJ.StevensM. R. (2011). The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2010 summary report. National Center for Injury Prevention and Control, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/ViolencePrevention/pdf/NISVS_Report2010-a.pdf
11.
BrushL. D.MillerE. (2019). Trouble in paradigm: “Gender transformative” programming in violence prevention. Violence Against Women, 25(14), 1635–1656. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801219872551
BurnS. M. (2009). A situational model of sexual assault prevention through bystander intervention. Sex Roles, 60(11–12), 779–792. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9581-5
14.
BushH. M.CokerA. L.DeGueS.ClearE. R.BrancatoC. J.FisherB. S. (2019). Do violence acceptance and bystander actions explain the effects of Green Dot on reducing violence perpetration in high schools?Journal of Interpersonal Violence. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519888206
15.
CampbellR.GreesonM. R.BybeeD.RajaS. (2008). The co-occurrence of childhood sexual abuse, adult sexual assault, intimate partner violence, and sexual harassment: A mediational model of posttraumatic stress disorder and physical health outcomes. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76(2), 194–207. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.76.2.194
16.
CarlsonB. E.WordenA. P. (2005). Attitudes and beliefs about domestic violence: Results of a public opinion survey: I. Definitions of domestic violence, criminal domestic violence, and prevalence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 20(10), 1197–1218. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260505278530
CokerA. L.BushH. M.BrancatoC. J.ClearE. R.RecktenwaldE. A. (2019). Bystander program effectiveness to reduce violence acceptance: RCT in high schools. Journal of Family Violence, 34(3), 153–164. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-018-9961-8
20.
CokerA. L.BushH. M.Cook-CraigP. G.DeGueS. A.ClearE. R.BrancatoC. J.FisherB. S.RecktenwaldE. A. (2017). RCT testing bystander effectiveness to reduce violence. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 52(5), 566–578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2017.01.020
21.
CokerA. L.BushH. M.FisherB. S.SwanS. C.WilliamsC. M.ClearE. R.DeGueS. (2016). Multi-college bystander intervention evaluation for violence prevention. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 50(3), 295–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2015.08.034
22.
CokerA. L.Cook-CraigP. G.WilliamsC. M.FisherB. S.ClearE. R.GarciaL. S.HeggeL. M. (2011). Evaluation of Green Dot: An active bystander intervention to reduce sexual violence on college campuses. Violence Against Women, 17(6), 777–796. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801211410264
23.
CollibeeC.RizzoC.BleiweissK.OrchowskiL. M. (2019). The influence of peer support for violence and peer acceptance of rape myths on multiple forms of interpersonal violence among youth. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519832925
24.
DeGueS. A.ValleL. A.HoltM. K.MassettiG. M.MatjaskoJ. L.TharpA. T. (2014). A systematic review of primary prevention strategies for sexual violence perpetration. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 19(4), 346–362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2014.05.004
25.
DuránM.MegíasJ. L.MoyaM. (2018). Male peer support to hostile sexist attitudes influences rape proclivity. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 33(14), 2180–2196. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515624212
26.
EdwardsK. M. (2018). Incidence and outcomes of dating violence victimization among high school youth: The role of gender and sexual orientation. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 33(9), 1472–1490. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260515618943
27.
EdwardsK. M.BanyardV. L.RizzoA.GreenbergP. (unpublished manuscript). Scope and correlates of high school youth’s exposure to dating and sexual violence prevention initiatives. Journal of Community Psychology.
28.
EdwardsK. M.BanyardV. L.SessaregoS. N.WatermanE. A.MitchellK. J.ChangH. (2019). Evaluation of a bystander-focused interpersonal violence prevention program with high school students. Prevention Science, 20(4), 488–498. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-019-01000-w
29.
EdwardsK. M.MattinglyM. J.DixonK. J.BanyardV. L. (2014). Community matters: Intimate partner violence among rural young adults. American Journal of Community Psychology, 53(1–2), 198–207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10464-014-9633-7
30.
EdwardsK. M.NealA. M.Rodenhizer-StämpfliK. A. (2017). Domestic violence prevention. In TeasdaleB.BradleyM. (Eds.), Advances in prevention science. Preventing crime and violence (pp. 215–227). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-44124-5_19
31.
EdwardsK. M.TurchikJ. A.DardisC. M.ReynoldsN.GidyczC. A. (2011). Rape myths: History, individuals and institutional-level presence, and implications for change. Sex Roles, 65(11–12), 761–774. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-9943-2
32.
FosheeV. A.ReyesH. L. M.EnnettS. T.CanceJ. D.BaumanK. E.BowlingJ. M. (2012). Assessing the effects of Families for Safe Dates, a family-based teen dating abuse prevention program. Journal of Adolescent Health, 51(4), 349–356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.12.029
33.
FryeV.PaulM. M.ToddM.-J.LewisV.CupidM.ColemanJ.SalmonC.O’CampoP. (2012). Informal social control of intimate partner violence against women: Results from a concept mapping study of urban neighborhoods. Journal of Community Psychology, 40(7), 828–844. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.21493
34.
GidyczC. A.OrchowskiL. M.BerkowitzA. D. (2011). Preventing sexual aggression among college men: An evaluation of a social norms and bystander intervention program. Violence Against Women, 17(6), 720–742. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801211409727
35.
GruberJ. E.FineranS. (2016). Sexual harassment, bullying, and school outcomes for high school girls and boys. Violence Against Women, 22(1), 112–133. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801215599079
36.
HaiderM.MakrinosT.SarkarM. (2017). Improving the effects of global health initiatives through FOMENT: An enhancement to the diffusion process. In Management Association, Information Resources (Ed.), Public health and welfare: Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications (pp. 1379–1397). IGI Global. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-1674-3.ch065
37.
HambyS.GrychJ. (2013). Evidence-based interventions need to be more systematic, not more disruptive. American Psychologist, 68(6), 476–477. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032884
KatzJ.HeisterkampH. A.FlemingW. M. (2011). The social justice roots of the mentors in violence prevention model and its application in a high school setting. Violence Against Women, 17(6), 684–702. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801211409725
41.
KeeK. F.SparksL.StruppaD. C.MannucciM. A.DamianoA. (2016). Information diffusion, Facebook clusters, and the simplicial model of social aggregation: A computational simulation of simplicial diffusers for community health interventions. Health Communication, 31(4), 385–399. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2014.960061
42.
LataneB.DarleyJ. M. (1968). Group inhibition of bystander intervention in emergencies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10(3), 215–221. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0026570
43.
LemayE. P.O’BrienK. M.KearneyM. S.SauberE. W.VenagliaR. B. (2019). Using conformity to enhance willingness to intervene in dating violence: A theory of planned behavior analysis. Psychology of Violence, 9(4), 400–409. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000114
44.
McDonaldR. I.CrandallC. S. (2015). Social norms and social influence. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 3 (June 2015), 147–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2015.04.006
45.
McDonnellK. A.BurkeJ. G.GielenA. C.O’CampoP.WeidlM. (2011). Women’s perceptions of their community’s social norms towards assisting women who have experienced intimate partner violence. Journal of Urban Health, 88(2), 240–253. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-011-9546-9
46.
McMahonS.SeabrookR. C. (2018). Impact of exposure to sexual violence prevention messages on students’ bystander behavior. Health Promotion Practice, 20(5), 711–720. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524839918811151
47.
NationM.CrustoC.WandersmanA.KumpferK. L.SeyboltD.Morrissey-KaneE.DavinoK. (2003). What works in prevention: Principles of effective prevention programs. American Psychologist, 58(6–7), 449–456. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.58.6-7.449
NiolonP. H.Vivolo-KantorA. M.TracyA. J.LatzmanN. E.LittleT. D.DeGueS.LangK. M.EstefanL. F.GhazarianS. R.McIntoshW.TaylorB.JohnsonL. L.KuohH.BurtonT.FortsonB.MumfordE. A.NelsonS. C.JosephH.ValleL. A.TharpA. T. (2019). An RCT of dating matters: Effects on teen dating violence and relationship behaviors. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 57(1), 13–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2019.02.022
50.
OrchowskiL. M. (2019). “Trouble in Paradigm” and the social norms approach to violence prevention. Violence Against Women, 25(14), 1672–1681. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801219872561
51.
OrchowskiL. M.EdwardsK. M.HollanderJ. A.BanyardV. L.SennC. Y.GidyczC. A. (2020). Integrating sexual assault resistance, bystander, and men’s social norms strategies to prevent sexual violence on college campuses: A call to action. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 21(4), 811–827. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838018789153
52.
PerkinsH. W.CraigD. W.PerkinsJ. M. (2011). Using social norms to reduce bullying: A research intervention among adolescents in five middle schools. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 14(5), 703–722. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430210398004
53.
PerkinsJ. M.PerkinsH. W.CraigD. (2018). The “reign of error” in adolescents’ perceptions of peer drinking norms in US secondary schools. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 52, S224–S224.
54.
R Core Team. (2019). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https://www.r-project.org/
RothmanE. F.EdwardsK. M.RizzoA. J.KearnsM.BanyardV. L. (2019). Perceptions of community norms and youths’ reactive and proactive dating and sexual violence bystander action. American Journal of Community Psychology, 63(1–2), 122–134. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12312
57.
RothmanE. F.JohnsonR. M.YoungR.WeinbergJ.AzraelD.MolnarB. E. (2011). Neighborhood-level factors associated with physical dating violence perpetration: Results of a representative survey conducted in Boston, MA. Journal of Urban Health, 88(2), 201–213. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-011-9543-z
58.
SampsonR. J.RaudenbushS. W.EarlsF. (1997). Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science, 277(5328), 918–924. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5328.918
59.
SessaregoS. N.SillerL.EdwardsK. M. (2019). Patterns of violence victimization and perpetration among adolescents using latent class analysis. Advance online publication. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519862272
60.
SmithR. A.KimY.ZhuX.DoudouD. T.SternbergE. D.ThomasM. B. (2018). Integrating models of diffusion and behavior to predict innovation adoption, maintenance, and social diffusion. Journal of Health Communication, 23(3), 264–271. https://doi.org/10.1080/10810730.2018.1434259
61.
SmithS. G.ZhangX.BasileK. C.MerrickM. T.WangJ.KresnowM.ChenJ. (2018). The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS): 2015 data brief. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/2015data-brief508.pdf
62.
StataCorp. (2017). Stata statistical software: Release 15. StataCorp LP. www.stata.com
63.
TharpA. T.SimonT. R.SaulJ. (2012). Preventing violence against children and youth. Journal of Safety Research, 43(4), 291–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2012.08.014
64.
TuckerJ. A.CheongJ.ChandlerS. D. (2016). Selecting communication channels for substance misuse prevention with at-risk African-American emerging adults living in the southern United States. Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse, 25(6), 539–545. https://doi.org/10.1080/1067828X.2016.1153552
65.
VagiK. J.RothmanE. F.LatzmanN. E.TharpA. T.HallD. M.BreidingM. J. (2013). Beyond correlates: A review of risk and protective factors for adolescent dating violence perpetration. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(4), 633–649. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9907-7
66.
ValenteT. W. (2010). Social networks and health: Models, methods, and applications. Oxford University Press.
67.
van Dommelen-GonzalezE.DeardorffJ.HerdD.MinnisA. M. (2015). Homies with aspirations and positive peer network ties: Associations with reduced frequent substance use among gang-affiliated Latino youth. Journal of Urban Health, 92(2), 322–337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-014-9922-3
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
