Burdened by Masculinity: Exploring Men’s Discrimination in India Through the Lens of Hegemonic Masculinity

Abstract

Gender is a psychosocial construct that reflects attitudes, feelings, and behaviors prescribed by cultural expectations for men and women. Gender discrimination has been identified as inappropriate in numerous societies. Greater attention has been paid to the discrimination in attitudes and practices that essentially disadvantage women and girls. There is limited attention and research on discrimination, whose central casualties are men and boys. It is so unrecognized that the mere mention of it may appear laughable to some. The article examines how hegemonic masculinity in India perpetuates discrimination against men by enforcing rigid gender norms, leading to emotional suppression, societal pressure, and marginalization of nonconforming masculinities. Further the study aims to challenge traditional notions of masculinity and advocate for more inclusive gender frameworks.

Introduction

The concept of masculinity, particularly hegemonic masculinity, has long been a cornerstone of societal structures, shaping gender relations, cultural norms, and individual identities. In India, the construction of masculinity is deeply rooted in historical, cultural, and sociopolitical contexts, influenced by colonial legacies, patriarchal traditions, and contemporary nationalist discourses. Hegemonic masculinity, as theorized by R.W. Connell, represents an idealized form of male identity characterized by dominance, aggression, emotional stoicism, and control. This ideal not only subjugates women but also marginalizes men who do not conform to these norms, creating a hierarchy within masculinities themselves. ¹ The pervasive influence of hegemonic masculinity extends beyond individual behaviors, infiltrating institutions such as family, education, media, and politics, and perpetuating systemic inequalities.

While a substantial body of research has extensively documented the pervasive discrimination and abuse faced by women and girls,^2–6 the narrative surrounding men and boys as victims of discrimination remains largely overlooked and underexplored. Rooted in the rigid constructs of hegemonic masculinity, men and boys often endure discrimination—sometimes even more acutely than women—yet their suffering is frequently dismissed, ignored, or rendered invisible. The mere suggestion of male discrimination may seem paradoxical or irrational to many, given the deeply entrenched societal norms that equate masculinity with power and invulnerability.

Despite these challenges, there is growing recognition of the need to challenge hegemonic masculinity and promote more inclusive models of gender relations. Efforts to address this issue must involve critical reflection on cultural norms, institutional reforms, and targeted interventions that engage men as active participants in the fight for gender equality.^7,8 This article aims to explore the social construction of masculinity in India, the domains of discrimination against men, and the role of hegemonic masculinity in perpetuating inequality. By examining these issues, we aim to contribute to a broader understanding of masculinity and its impact on society, fostering a more equitable and compassionate world for all.

The Social Construction of Masculinity in India

Hegemonic masculinity in India is deeply embedded in the nation’s cultural, historical, and sociopolitical fabric, shaping gender relations and societal norms in profound ways. Historically, the concept of masculinity in India has been influenced by colonialism, which imposed a hierarchy of masculinities that subordinated Indian men to their British colonizers.^9,10 The British characterized Indian men as “effeminate,” contrasting them with the militaristic and dominant image of British masculinity.^9,10 This colonial narrative not only undermined Indian masculinity but also created a complex interplay of resistance and internalization that continues to shape gender dynamics in India today. ⁹ For instance, figures like Mahatma Gandhi responded to this subjugation by redefining masculinity through moral strength and nonviolence rather than physical dominance, challenging both colonial and traditional patriarchal ideals.^9,11

Culturally, hegemonic masculinity in India is intertwined with patriarchal norms that emphasize male dominance over women and other marginalized masculinities. The family structure often reflects this dynamic, where a man’s honor is tied to controlling the chastity and behavior of female family members. ⁶ Women are frequently confined to roles as dutiful wives and mothers, while men are expected to embody authority, stoicism, and control. This dynamic perpetuates gender inequality by restricting women’s autonomy and reinforcing men’s dominance as a cultural ideal. ¹² Furthermore, these norms are upheld through various societal institutions, including religion, media, and education, which glorify male authority while marginalizing alternative masculinities.

Despite these entrenched norms, hegemonic masculinity in India is not static but exists in a state of flux. Economic changes, globalization, and the rise of feminist movements have begun to challenge traditional ideals of manhood. Younger generations are increasingly questioning rigid gender roles, leading to a crisis in traditional masculinity as men navigate evolving expectations around equality and emotional vulnerability. ¹³ However, the persistence of hegemonic masculinity continues to pose barriers to gender justice by legitimizing male privilege and subordinating women and nonconforming masculinities.

In essence, hegemonic masculinity in India is both a product of its historical subjugation under colonial rule and its deeply ingrained patriarchal culture. It operates through cultural narratives, family structures, and nationalist ideologies to maintain male dominance while marginalizing alternative identities. Addressing its pervasive influence requires dismantling these cultural constructs and fostering more inclusive models of gender relations that value equality and diversity.

Domains of Discrimination Against Men

Discrimination against boys and men is a silent epidemic, often overlooked because it is cloaked in the guise of tradition, expectation, and societal norms. While significant strides have been made in addressing gender inequality, the struggles faced by males are frequently dismissed, minimized, or even ridiculed. This form of bias, though less visible, is no less damaging. It infiltrates every aspect of their lives—physical health, mental well-being, and social standing—yet it is rarely acknowledged as a systemic issue. By examining this phenomenon, we uncover a troubling truth: boys and men are often victims of a system that forces them into rigid, unforgiving molds of masculinity, leaving them vulnerable, unsupported, and trapped in a cycle of silent suffering. David Benatar, ¹⁴ in his book “The Second Sexism: Discrimination Against Men and Boys,” outlines various areas such as conscription and combat, corporal punishment, education, parental custody, imprisonment, and others where men and boys are discriminated against more than women precisely because of gender.

Other domains include domestic violence and intimate partner violence, which are often framed in a way that portrays women as victims and men as perpetrators, a narrative that overlooks the complexities of abuse. In India, this bias is evident in legal frameworks like Section 498A of the Indian Penal Code, which targets husbands or their relatives for cruelty against wives, ignoring the possibility of wives abusing husbands. Similarly, the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005, while vital for women’s safety, fails to recognize male victims. Emerging research^15-19 highlights that men endure psychological, physical, emotional, and even sexual abuse, yet their suffering is often dismissed, leaving them with little support. Former Supreme Court judge Markandey Katju has criticized these laws for being weaponized by disgruntled wives, and national newspapers^20,21 have documented false accusations against men, exploiting societal stereotypes. Reports of older women sexually assaulting minor boys^22–24 further challenge the notion that only men can be aggressors. Despite approximately 100 daily distress calls from men reported by the Save Indian Family Foundation, most cases go unreported due to the stigma around masculinity, which ridicules men for showing vulnerability. This systemic failure to address male victims perpetuates harmful stereotypes and denies justice, underscoring the need for an inclusive approach that recognizes domestic violence as a human issue, not a gendered one.

The physical health of boys and men is deeply influenced by societal expectations that equate masculinity with strength, endurance, and invulnerability. From a young age, boys are taught to “tough it out,” hide their pain, and prioritize stoicism over self-care. This cultural conditioning leads men to delay seeking medical help, adhere less to treatment plans, and avoid preventive care, resulting in higher rates of undiagnosed conditions like heart disease, diabetes, and mental health disorders. ²⁵ Men have shorter life expectancies than women and are more likely to die from preventable causes such as accidents, substance abuse, and suicide. ²⁶ This neglect is not just personal but systemic, rooted in the belief that men must be self-reliant and invincible, even at the cost of their lives.

The mental health consequences of this bias are equally devastating. Boys and men are socialized to suppress emotions, avoid vulnerability, and equate emotional expression with weakness. This leaves them ill-equipped to cope with stress, trauma, or mental health challenges, often leading to anger, aggression, or self-destructive behaviors like substance abuse. Men who face discrimination based on gender norms are at higher risk of depression and anxiety but are far less likely to seek help. ²⁷ The stigma surrounding mental health in men contributes to a staggering statistic: men account for nearly 80% of global suicides. ²⁶ Each death is a tragic reminder of a culture that values stoicism over humanity.

The Role of Hegemonic Masculinity in Perpetuating Discrimination

Hegemonic masculinity plays a central role in perpetuating discrimination by legitimizing and reinforcing unequal power dynamics across genders, social classes, and marginalized groups.

One of the most pervasive ways hegemonic masculinity perpetuates discrimination is through its alignment with structural violence. Hegemonic masculinity exacerbates inequalities, such as economic disparities, health inequities, and access to opportunities, by promoting power hierarchies that privilege dominant men while marginalizing women, LGBTQIA+ individuals, and men from subordinate racial or economic backgrounds. For instance, the competitive and aggressive traits valorized by hegemonic masculinity often translate into policies and organizational cultures that prioritize profit and power over equity and inclusion. This dynamic is evident in the persistence of gender pay gaps, glass ceilings for women in leadership roles, and the exclusion of marginalized groups from decision-making processes. ²⁸

Furthermore, hegemonic masculinity reinforces harmful stereotypes that constrain both men and women. Men are pressured to embody ideals of physical strength, emotional invulnerability, and dominance over others. This not only limits their ability to express vulnerability or seek help—leading to adverse outcomes such as poor mental health and higher rates of violence—but also positions them as enforcers of patriarchal norms. Women, on the other hand, are relegated to subordinate roles where their contributions are undervalued or dismissed entirely. These gendered expectations are deeply ingrained in societal institutions such as education systems, workplaces, and even healthcare settings, where women often face discrimination while men are discouraged from engaging in preventive health behaviors. ²⁹

The discriminatory effects of hegemonic masculinity extend beyond gender relations to broader social hierarchies. It intersects with racism, xenophobia, homophobia, and classism to reinforce systemic inequalities. For example, hegemonic masculinity is often tied to nationalistic ideologies that portray dominant men as protectors of cultural or racial purity while marginalizing minority groups perceived as threats. This dynamic has been observed in political contexts where appeals to masculine ideals have been used to justify exclusionary policies and perpetuate prejudice against racial or religious outgroups. ³⁰ Additionally, the emphasis on competition and dominance inherent in hegemonic masculinity aligns with neoliberal economic models that prioritize individual success over collective well-being. This contributes to widening socioeconomic disparities and undermines efforts toward social justice. ²⁸

In essence, hegemonic masculinity operates as a pervasive force that normalizes discrimination at both interpersonal and institutional levels. By legitimizing male dominance and marginalizing alternative identities, it perpetuates structural inequalities that harm not only women but also men who fail to conform to its rigid ideals. Addressing its impact requires dismantling these entrenched norms through cultural shifts, policy reforms, and inclusive interventions aimed at fostering equity across all dimensions of society.

The Complex Dynamics of Hegemonic Masculinity: Women’s Roles and Endorsement

The concept of hegemonic masculinity is complex and multifaceted, influencing not only men but also women in profound ways. While women are often subjugated by hegemonic masculinity, they also play a crucial role in its perpetuation and, in some cases, benefit from it. Hegemonic masculinity, at many levels, is prized by women as they show interest and attention, and make attempts to reproduce this cultural model of manhood among their close male kin and associates. According to Connell and Messerschmidt, ²⁸ women, as mothers, friends, partners, and participants in the gendered division of labor, significantly shape masculinities. They often encourage and reproduce traditional masculine ideals within their families and social circles, reinforcing the cultural model of manhood that emphasizes strength, dominance, and aggression.

In many Indian households, women act as custodians of patriarchal values by upholding and transmitting these norms to future generations. From an early age, boys are socialized to embody traits associated with hegemonic masculinity—strength, dominance, and emotional restraint—while girls are taught to accept and support these roles. For instance, a father’s honor is often tied to the chastity and behavior of his daughter, placing the onus of preserving family dignity on women while reinforcing the idea that men must control and protect them. ⁶ This dynamic not only legitimizes male authority but also normalizes the subordination of women.

Cultural practices and rituals further embed these ideals. Women are often celebrated for their roles as self-sacrificing mothers or faithful wives, reinforcing their subordinate position in relation to men. Rituals such as Karva Chauth, where women fast for the well-being of their husbands, symbolize the acceptance of male dominance as natural and desirable. Such practices not only glorify traditional femininity but also validate the complementary role of hegemonic masculinity within the societal framework. ⁶

Interestingly, research has shown that both men and women who endorse hegemonic masculinity may exhibit similar behaviors and attitudes. For instance, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the belief that men should be tough predicted negative views of mask-wearing among both genders. ³¹ Some female politicians have even advocated against public health measures, aligning themselves with traditional masculine ideals of strength and resilience. ³² This highlights how hegemonic masculinity can influence women’s behaviors and attitudes, sometimes leading them to support policies or norms that reinforce gender hierarchies.

Media’s Role in Reinforcing Hegemonic Masculinity

The media plays a pivotal role in reinforcing hegemonic masculinity by perpetuating idealized images of male dominance, strength, and control. Through films, television, advertising, and digital platforms, media representations often glorify hyper-masculine traits such as aggression, stoicism, and physical prowess while marginalizing alternative expressions of masculinity. These portrayals not only shape societal expectations but also limit the possibilities for men to explore identities that deviate from the hegemonic ideal. For instance, popular Bollywood films frequently depict male protagonists as invincible heroes who solve problems through violence or dominance, reinforcing the notion that true masculinity is synonymous with power and control. ³³ Similarly, Western media often glorifies the “tough guy” archetype, perpetuating stereotypes that equate emotional vulnerability with weakness. ³⁴

The media’s reinforcement of hegemonic masculinity has far-reaching consequences. It contributes to the normalization of gender-based violence by portraying aggressive behavior as a natural and even desirable male trait. It also perpetuates harmful stereotypes that constrain both men and women, limiting their ability to express themselves authentically. For men, the pressure to conform to these ideals can lead to adverse outcomes such as poor mental health, substance abuse, and strained relationships. For women, the glorification of male dominance reinforces patriarchal norms that undermine their autonomy and perpetuate gender inequality. ³⁵

However, the media also has the potential to challenge hegemonic masculinity by promoting alternative representations of gender. Films, television shows, and digital content that depict men as emotionally expressive, collaborative, and nurturing can help to dismantle harmful stereotypes and broaden societal understandings of masculinity. For example, recent media initiatives have sought to portray men as caregivers, allies, and advocates for gender equality, challenging traditional notions of masculinity and promoting more inclusive models of gender relations. ³⁶ By leveraging its influence, the media can play a transformative role in reshaping cultural norms and fostering a more equitable society.

The Need for Change: Challenging Hegemonic Masculinity

Efforts to challenge hegemonic masculinity must address its institutional entrenchment in schools, workplaces, media, and political systems. These institutions often reinforce traditional norms through policies and practices that reward dominance while penalizing vulnerability or collaboration. For example, educational systems that prioritize competitive sports over emotional intelligence or workplaces that valorize aggressive leadership styles perpetuate the ideals of hegemonic masculinity, marginalizing those who do not conform. ²⁸ Media representations of hyper-masculine heroes further entrench these ideals by glorifying traits like aggression and stoicism while marginalizing expressions of care or emotional depth. ³⁴ Such representations not only shape societal expectations but also limit the possibilities for men to explore alternative forms of identity.

However, change is possible through targeted interventions that promote critical reflection on gender norms. Programs aimed at engaging men in discussions about masculinity have shown promise in deconstructing harmful stereotypes and encouraging healthier behaviors. ⁷ For instance, initiatives in South Africa and Sweden have successfully used the concept of hegemonic masculinity to inform gender equity programs that involve men as active participants in challenging patriarchal norms. ⁸ These efforts demonstrate that while hegemonic masculinity is deeply entrenched, it is not immutable. By fostering public dialogues about its harmful effects and promoting alternative masculinities rooted in equality and empathy, societies can begin to dismantle the structures that sustain it.

Conclusion

The exploration of hegemonic masculinity and its impact on boys and men reveals a complex interplay of cultural norms, institutional practices, and systemic inequalities. In India, the construction of masculinity is deeply influenced by historical legacies, patriarchal traditions, and contemporary nationalist discourses, creating a rigid framework that marginalizes those who do not conform to its ideals. This framework perpetuates discrimination against men, leading to adverse outcomes in physical health, mental well-being, and social standing. The media further reinforces these norms by glorifying hyper-masculine traits and marginalizing alternative expressions of gender identity.

However, the persistence of hegemonic masculinity does not signify its inevitability. Efforts to challenge these norms through critical reflection, institutional reforms, and targeted interventions have shown promise in promoting more inclusive models of gender relations. Programs that engage men in discussions about masculinity and encourage healthier behaviors are essential steps toward dismantling the structures that sustain inequality.^7,8 Media representations that depict men as emotionally expressive, collaborative, and nurturing can also play a transformative role in reshaping cultural norms and fostering a more equitable society. ³⁶

In conclusion, addressing the pervasive influence of hegemonic masculinity requires a multifaceted approach that involves individuals, institutions, and society as a whole. By promoting inclusive models of gender relations and fostering environments where men and boys can express themselves freely, we can create a more equitable and compassionate world for all. The time for change is now—our collective future depends on it.