Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online 2026-3
Integrated sedimentological,petrographic and mineralogical analysis of provenance and diagenesis in the Carnot-Berberati Basin,Central African Republic (CAR)
The Carnot-Berberati Basin in the southwestern region of the Central African Republic (CAR) was investigated to determine the provenance, sedimentation conditions and diagenetic evolution of its detrital deposits. A total of nine (09) stratigraphic columns and eight distinct lithofacies were identified. Sedimentological, petrographic and mineralogical data revealed that the sediments are primarily composed of quartz (72.25%), feldspar (11.8%), mica (4.75%), rock fragment (5.4%), heavy minerals (1.95%) and other minerals (5.80%). The presence of polycrystalline quartz exhibiting undulatory extinction, along with monocrystalline quartz with non-undulatory extinction, indicates contributions from both stable cratonic and recycled orogenic sources. Heavy mineral analysis provided insights into sediment provenance, whereas x-ray diffraction facilitated precise mineral identification, aiding in the reconstruction of diagenetic processes such as cementation, mineral transformation and post-depositional alteration. Grain morphological analysis further elucidated the sediment transport dynamics and depositional conditions, offering evidence of past tectonic and environmental influences. The sandstones are mainly classified as sub-arkose, with some quartz arenite, and a minor amount of sublitharenite, arkose and lithic-arkose. This classification reflects their origin from the Precambrian basement rocks. Integrated analyses showed that the sediment was sourced from continental terrain and was deposited as a fluvial environment. Diagenetic evolution is influenced by both mineralogical composition and post-deposition processes. This study indicates that the sediments originated from a lithology of the provenance and were deposited in a basin. This study provides valuable insight into basin diagenetic processes and depositional history.
AcquafreddaPFornelliAPiccarretaGSummaV. Provenance and tectonic implications of heavy minerals in Pliocene-Pleistocene siliciclastic sediments of the southern Apennines, Italy. Sediment Geol1997; 113(1–2): 149–59.
2.
HallRSevastjanovaI. Australian crust in Indonesia. Aust J Earth Sci2012; 59(6): 827–44.
3.
dos Santos CostaSSdo NascimentoMALda SilvaMLN. Geological and mining heritages in the Seridó UNESCO Global Geopark: Ediacaran to Cambrian mineral deposits revealed by historical mines in Northeast Brazil. Int J Geoheritage Park [Internet]2024; 12(2): 311–32. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgeop.2024.04.004.
4.
MéndezASJStackhouseSTrautnerV, et al.Broad Elastic Softening of (Mg,Fe)O Ferropericlase Across the Iron Spin Crossover and a Mixed-Spin Lower Mantle. J Geophys Res Solid Earth2022; 127(8).
5.
TchouatchaSMNgahaNRicardP, et al.Existence of “ late continental “ deposits in the Mbere and Djerem sedimentary basins (North Cameroon): Palynologic and stratigraphic evidence. 2010;2(November):159–69.
6.
TchouatchaMSKouskeAPTakojio NguemoRE, et al.The active thermogene travertine deposits along the Cameroon volcanic line (CVL), central africa: Petrology and insights for neotectonics and paleoenvironmental approach. J African Earth Sci [Internet]2018; 144(Cvl): 1–16. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2018.04.004.
7.
TchouatchaMSSobdjou KemteuCMbesseCO, et al.Mechanisms of sedimentation in lacustrine environment of Babouri-Figuil and Mayo Oulo-Lere basins deposits (North Cameroon) during the Southern Atlantic opening: sedimentary structures and geochemistry constraints. Arab J Geosci14(6).
8.
TchouatchaMSKassi KassiPMbesseCO, et al.Geochemistry of onshore deposits from Rio del Rey sub-basin of the western Atlantic margin of Cameroon (Coastal basin, Southwest Cameroon): provenance and environments of sedimentation. Environ Earth Sci2022 Jun 1; 81(11).
9.
Ngo Elogan NtemJNgounfack TiokengVToyamaR, et al.Geochemical constrains for unravelling the condition of sedimentation, provenance, paleoclimate variation, and metallogenic implication of the cretaceous deposits of Mayo Oulo Basin (North Cameroon, Africa). Solid Earth Sci2024; 9(3).
10.
Sobdjou-kemteuCStaffordMFathiW. Provenance, diagenesis, and paleoclimate of Albian-Lower Turonian deposits in the Douala sub-basin, Cameroon : Sedimentological, mineralogical, and petrographical approaches. Solid Earth Sci [Internet]2025; 10(3): 100259. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sesci.2025.100259.
11.
TchouatchaMSKassiPKMbesseCO, et al.Geochemistry of Onshore Deposits From Rio-Del-Rey Sub-Basin of The Western Atlantic Margin of Cameroon (Coastal Basin, South West Cameroon): Provenance And Environments of Sedimentation. Available from: https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-802894/v1.
12.
Sobdjou-KemteuCToyamaRTchouatchaMS, et al.Provenance and paleoenvironment of the Albian-Lower Turonian detrital deposits in the northern part of the Coastal Douala sub-basin (Cameroon). Arab J Geosci [Internet]2025; 18(4, Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-025-12228-y.
13.
JohnssonMJ. The system controlling the composition of clastic sediments. Spec Pap Geol Soc Am1993; 284: 1–19.
14.
BoboyeOAOkonEE. Sedimentological and geochemical characterization of the Cretaceousstrata of Calabar Flank, southeastern Nigeria. J African Earth Sci2014; 99(PA2): 427–41.
15.
McLennanSM. Composition of the Upper Continental Crust Revisited: Insights from Sedimentary Rocks. Mineral Mag1998; 62A(2): 983–4.
16.
CensierCLangJ. Sedimentary processes in the Carnot Formation (Central African Republic) related to the palaeogeographic framework of Central Africa. Sediment Geol1999; 127(1–2): 47–64.
17.
CensierCTourenqJ. Mise en evidence d’une extension occidentale des gres de Carnot (Republique Centrafricaine) par analyses sedimentologiques comparees de gisements alluvionnaires diamantiferes. Geodynamique1986; 1(1): 21–32.
18.
CensierC. Characteristics of Mesozoic fluvio-lacustrine formations of the western Central African Republic (Carnot Sandstones) by means of mineralogical and exoscopic analyses of detrital material. J African Earth Sci1990; 10(1–2): 385–98.
19.
CensierC.Caractérisation de processus d’érosion régressive par analyse sédimentologique comparée des sables du chenal et des barres du cours inférieur de l’Oubangui (République Centrafricaine, Congo, Zaïre). IAHS-AISH Publ1996; 238(238): 289–303.
20.
ChiricoFNordqvistM. Dynamic capabilities and trans-generational value creation in family firms: The role of organizational culture. Int Small Bus J2010; 28(5): 487–504.
21.
KeilDEBuckBGoossensD, et al.Nevada desert dust with heavy metals suppresses IgM antibody production. Toxicol Reports [Internet]2018; 5(June 2017): 258–69. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2018.01.006.
22.
CensierCLangJ. La Formation glaciaire de la Mambéré (République Centrafricaine): Reconstitution paléogéographique et implications à l’échelle du Paléozoique africain. Geol Rundschau1992; 81(3): 769–89.
23.
CensierCLangJMbongoBHLatouA. Mise en evidence d’une formation glaciaire paleozoique dans l’Est de la Republique Centrafricaine: la formation glaciaire de la Kombele. Comptes Rendus - Acad des Sci Ser II1992; 315(6): 711–5.
24.
MutaqinBWIsnainMNNingsihRLDarmawanH. Suratman. Grain size and sedimentation process in the Anak Krakatau coastal area of Indonesia. Results Earth Sci [Internet]2024; 2(March): 100018. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rines.2024.100018.
25.
VicatJgGioanP. phanérozoïques de la cuvette du Zaïre. 2016;(July).
26.
GérardG. Rapport de mission Berberati –W et Bossangoa-W. Oubangui Occidental inédit, 121 p., 35pl archives DMG RCA. 1953;1953. 1953.
27.
MestraudJL. Geology and resources of the Central African Republic, 186p . 1985;1985. 1985.
28.
PoidevinJL. Un segment proximal de rampe carbonatée d’âge protérozoïque supérieur au nord du craton d’Afrique centrale (sud-est de la République Centrafricaine). J African Earth Sci1996; 23(2): 257–62.
29.
Berthoumieux, G., and Delany. Diamond mission in western Oubangui Bulletin of the Directorate of Mines and Geology of Bangui (RCA) 85p. 1957;1957. 1957.
30.
GrovesIMGrovesDIBierleinFP, et al.Recognition of the hydrothermal feeder to the structurally inverted, giant broken hill deposit, new South Wales, Australia. Econ Geol2008; 103(7): 1389–94.
31.
GrovesDI. Geological Atlas of Africa, with Notes on Stratigraphy, Tectonics, Economic Geology, Geohazards, Geosites and Geoscientific Education of Each Country. 2nd Edition.: THOMAS SCHLUTER. Pp 308, with CD-ROM. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany. 2008. ISBN 9787 -3. Vol. 103, Economic Geology. 2008. 1379–1379 p.
32.
BerthoumieuxG. (1957). Diamond mining inventory for Est-Oubangui unpublished, 2p.1 map at 1/500000. Archives DMG RCA. 1957;500000.
33.
CatuneanuOBeaumontCWaschbuschP. Interplay of static loads and subduction dynamics in foreland basins: Reciprocal stratigraphies and the “missing” peripheral bulge. Geology1997; 25(12): 1087–90.
MadukweH. Organic Matter Quantity, Quality and Maturity Studies of the Paleocene Ewekoro Formation, Southwestern Nigeria. 2014;4(23). Available from: www.iiste.org.
36.
Censier. Censier, C. Dynamique Sedimentaire d’un Systeme Fluviatile Diamantifere Mesozoique La Formation de Carnot (Republique Centrafricaine). 1989;591p. 1989.
37.
OlaPSAdepehinEJ. Sedimentological interpretation of coastal ditch cuttings: implications for subsurface geology and provenance in Dahomey Basin, Nigeria. Arab J Geosci2017; 10(3).
38.
MiallAD. Lithofacies types and vertical profile models in braided river deposits: a summary. Fluv Sedimentol1978; 5: 597–600.
39.
EltijaniAMohammedMAAAbuobidaYYousifIM. Integrating CoDA and PCA for enhanced characterization of fluvial depositional processes: a case study of the Shendi formation, Sudan. Discov Geosci [Internet]2024; 2(1), Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s44288-024-00011-7.
MimounA. Analyse petrographique et sedimentologique de l’albien d’ain mimoun, khenchela, (nord-est algerie). 2007;9–20.
42.
MakeenYMShanXAyinlaHA, et al.Sedimentology, petrography, and reservoir quality of the Zarga and Ghazal formations in the Keyi oilfield, Muglad Basin, Sudan. Sci Rep [Internet]2021; 11(1): 1–22. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-80831-y.
43.
Stewart JrHB. (2). Sedimentary Reflections of Depositional Environment in San Miguel Lagoon, Baja California, Mexico. Am Assoc Pet Geol Bull. 1958;42(I):2587–618.
44.
OsmanAFIIbrahimAAbuobidaY, et al.Sedimentary Facies and Depositional Environment of the Gedaref Formation, Eastern Sudan. 2016;2(6):236–41.
45.
FOLK RL. A Review of Grain-Size Parameters. Sedimentology1966; 6(2): 73–93.
46.
Folk and Ward. Brazos River bar [Texas]; a study in the significance of grain size parameters. Journal of sedimentary research1957; 27(1): 3–26.
47.
FriedmanGM. Dynamic Processes and Statistical Parameters Compared for Size Frequency Distribution of Beach and River Sands. 1967;(2).
48.
GranathJWDicksonW. Organization of African Intra-Plate Tectonics *. 2018;30555.
49.
DickinsonWR. INTERPRETING PROVENANCE RELATIONS FROM DETRITAL MüDES OF SANDSTONES. 1985;333–61.
50.
DickinsonWR. Geological Society of America Bulletin OVERVIEW : Tectonic implications of Cenozoic volcanism in coastal California Tectonic implications of Cenozoic volcanism in coastal California. 1997;(8).
51.
TogozoFTBoboyeOATchouatchaMS, et al.Geochemical constraints on provenance history, tectonic setting, and hydrocarbon generation potential of detrital deposits from the Carnot Berberati Basin, Southwest Central African Republic. Discover Geoscience2025; 3(1): 206.
52.
Dickinson Physiographic controls on the composition of sediments derived from volcanic and sedimentary terrains on Barro Colorado Island, Panama: discussion. Journal of Sedimentary Research1990; 60(5).
53.
DanielNKouagou N’Dah KwayisiDKonateSIM, et al.Geochemistry of the Neoproterozoic sandstone associated with the Buem Structural Unit ophiolite of Northwestern Benin Republic : Implications for geodynamic evolution and paleoenvironment. Apply Earth2025.
54.
GhassemiMRGarzantiE. Geology and geomorphology of Turkmenistan: A review. Geopersia2019; 9(1): 125–40.
55.
KonateSIMBolarinwaATKwayisiD, et al.Provenance and tectonic setting of greywacke and siltstone of the Nampala gold deposit, Southern Mali. Applied Earth Science2024; 133(2): 129–147.
56.
CritelliSMongelliGPerriF, et al.Compositional and geochemical signatures for the sedimentary evolution of the middle triassic-lower jurassic continental redbeds from western-central mediterranean alpine chains. J Geol2008; 116(4): 375–86.
57.
AugustssonC. Influencing factors on petrography interpretations in provenance research—a case-study review. Geosci2021; 11(5).
58.
GarzantiE. Petrographic classification of sand and sandstone. Earth-Science Rev2019; 1(192): 545–63.
59.
TraoreEMSidibeM. Petrography and geochemistry of Paleoproterozoic metasediments of Bougouni Region, Southern Mali : Implication for provenance and tectonic setting. 2025.
60.
AndrewsSDVosgerauHBojesen-KoefoedJA. The sedimentology and depositional environments of the Bastians Dal and Muslingebjerg formations: evidence for the earliest phases of Jurassic rifting in North-East Greenland. GEUS Bull2022; 49(2003): 1–20.
61.
NtonMAdamolekunOJ. Sedimentological and geochemical characteristics of outcrop sediments of southern Bida basin, central Nigeria: implications for provenance, paleoenvironment and tectonic history. Ife J Sci [Internet]2016; 18(2): 345–69. Available from: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/cee646e888011096bca225a5b4af8684b3ca1503.
62.
RibeiroACMendesRSantosL, et al.Distribution and provenance of heavy minerals from recent sediments of Green Lake, North Brazil, revisited. Geol Acta2022; 20: 1–14.
63.
WangXLiMFangR, et al.The distributions and geochemical implications of in immature sediments. 2022.
64.
AboloAJNSNIIIOndoaADB, et al.Geochemical Characterization and Mineralogy of Babouri-Figuil Oil Shale, North-Cameroon. J Surf Eng Mater Adv Technol2014; 04(06): 359–68.
65.
RadwanAE. Unveiling the Earth’s mineral resources: Insights into gold, clay, and metasedimentary systems across emerging terranes. Appl Earth Sci Trans Inst Min Metall2025; 134(2): 67–8.
66.
PotterPEPettijohnFJ. Basin Analysis and the Sedimentary Model. Paleocurrents Basin Anal1963: 224–51.
67.
BarberaGCritelliSMazzoleniP, et al.Petrology and Geochemistry of Cretaceous Sedimentary Rocks of the Monte Soro Unit (Sicily, Italy): Constraints on Weathering, Diagenesis, and Provenance. 2011;119(1):51–68.
ChampagnacL. Dynamique des formations superficielles et analyse morphologique du Val de Ruz. 2005;149.
70.
MirkamalovRDivaevFUzokovR, et al.Geology of critical mineral deposits of the Kuljuktau Mts., Central Kyzylkum (Uzbekistan). Applied Earth Science2025; 134(1): 44–62.
71.
SahuBK. Depositional Mechanisms from the Size Analysis of Clastic Sediments. Journal of Sedimentary Research1964; 34(1): 73–83.
72.
Dickinson_Suczek. Christopher A. Plate tectonics and sandstone compositions. Aapg Bulletin1979; 63(12): 2164–2182.
73.
NugrohoSHPutraPS. Determining textural and geochemical element characteristics of seafloor sediment using multivariate analysis along the Simeulue sub-basin, Indonesia. Rud Geol Naft Zb2020; 35(4): 79–92.
74.
Basit. Facies analysis and depositional framework of Late Permian-Jurassic sedimentary successions, Western Salt Range, Pakistan: implications for sequence stratigraphic trends and paleogeography of the Neo-Tethys Sea. 2023;50(1):1–22.
75.
CarranzaEJMHaleMFaassenC. Selection of coherent deposit-type locations and their application in data-driven mineral prospectivity mapping. Ore Geol Rev2008; 33(3–4): 536–58.
76.
OpreanuG. Identifying erosion areas along the Danube on the basis of grain-size and hydrologic parameters. Geo-Eco-Marina2010; 16: 101–6.
77.
AigbadonGOChristopherSDAkudoEOAkakuruOC. Sedimentary facies and textural characteristics of Cretaceous sandstones in the southern Bida Basin, Nigeria: Implication for reservoir potential and depositional environment. Energy Geosci [Internet]2022; 3(3): 323–41. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engeos.2022.05.002.
78.
AdeigbeOCSalufuAE. Geology and depositional environment of Campano-Maastrichtian sediments in the Anambra Basin, Southeastern Nigeria: Evidence from field relationship and sedimentological study. Earth Sci Res J2009; 13(2): 148–65.
79.
ThuoP. Etude stratigraphique, petrographique et diagenetique des gres d ‘ age Cretace de la region ouest du bassin du lac Turkana, Kenya . Cons ´ equences sur leurs caract ´ eristiques reservoir et l ‘evaluation du potentiel petrolier du nord-ouest du Kenya . 2015.
80.
AmigunJOFaladeAOOlarewajuB. Exploration of suspected magnetite ore minerals in Emure – Ekiti, Southwestern Nigeria using integrated geophysical methods of very low frequency electromagnetic (VLF-EM) and magnetics. Appl Earth Sci Trans Inst Min Metall2024; 133(1): 46–66.
81.
IkedaMTadaR. A 70 million year astronomical time scale for the deep-sea bedded chert sequence (Inuyama, Japan): Implications for Triassic-Jurassic geochronology. Earth Planet Sci Lett2014; 399: 30–43.
82.
KazapoeRWOkunlolaOArhinE, et al.Compositional characteristics of mineralised and unmineralised gneisses and schist around the Abansuoso area, southwestern Ghana. Appl Earth Sci Trans Inst Min Metall [Internet]2023; 132(1): 36–51. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1080/25726838.2023.2166725.
83.
HouseknechtDW. INTERGRANULAR PRESSURE SOLUTION in FOUR QUARTZOSE SANDSTONES. J Sediment Res1988; 58(2): 228–46.
CANT DJ, WALKER RG. Fluvial processes and facies sequences in the sandy braided South Saskatchewan River, Canada. Sedimentology1978; 25(5): 625–48.
86.
LewinJ. Floodplain geomorphology. Vol. 2, Progress in Physical Geography. 1978. 408–437 p.
87.
NansonGCCrokeJC. A genetic classification of floodplains. Geomorphology1992; 4(6): 459–86.
88.
MiallAD. Principles of sedimentary basin analysis.Earth-Science Reviews1985; 22: 253–7.
89.
WebsterR. Sedimentology and Stratigraphy. Eur J Soil Sci2010; 61(2): 315–6.
90.
MeadowsJMüller-scheeßelNChebenI, et al.Temporal dynamics of Linearbandkeramik houses and settlements, and their implications for detecting the environmental impact of early farming. The Holocene2019; 29(10): 1653–1670.
91.
CollinsonJWHammerWRAskinRAElliotDH. Permian-Triassic boundary in the central Transantarctic Mountains, Antarctica. Bull Geol Soc Am2006; 118(5–6): 747–63.
92.
CatuneanuOKhalifaMAWanasHA. Sequence stratigraphy of the Lower Cenomanian Bahariya Formation, Bahariya Oasis, Western Desert, Egypt. Sediment Geol2006; 190(1–4): 121–37.
93.
AntoniazzaGLaneSN. Sediment yield over glacial cycles : A conceptual model. Prog Phys Geogr2021; 45(6): 842–65.
94.
MessadiAM. Earth Science and Geophysics Sedimentology, Sequence Stratigraphy and Paleoclimate Implications of the Upper Cretaceous-Lower Paleocene of the Haria Formation from Gafsa Basin Southern Tunisia. 2022.
95.
SingerA. The Paleoclimatic Interpretation of Clay Minerals in Sediments a Review. 1984;21:251–93.
96.
ChamleyH. Clay Sedimentology. 1989. 626 p.
97.
OniSOOlatunjiAS. Depositional environments signatures, maturity and source weathering of Niger Delta sediments from an oil well in southeastern Delta State, Nigeria. 2019;8(061).
