Railways are one of the most significant modes of transportation in India that requires huge natural resources to maintain the existing tracks, fulfil the escalating demand for new infrastructure, and upgrade the tracks for a semi-high or high-speed rail network. To conserve natural resources, it is essential to explore suitable alternatives to conventional materials. Coal is extensively used in energy generation in India. Coal is primarily supplied through open-cast mines that generate coal mine overburden (CMO) causing environmental concerns for safe disposal. In the pursuit of sustainable development, the potential of the CMO, a waste-derived material, for use as a subballast in railway track embankments is reviewed comprehensively focusing on design aspects, challenges, and limitations. The outcome of the review depicts that the mechanical and chemical properties of Indian-originated CMO are comparable to conventional subballast materials demonstrating its suitability as a viable alternative. Moreover, the use of CMO significantly reduces the demand for natural resources for subballast and efficiently overcomes the challenge of its safe disposal. The collective knowledge of engineering fundamentals of subballast, available waste-originated alternatives for a subballast, and the CMO's characteristics referring to its use as a subballast are the key highlights of the present review. The summary directs researchers and field practitioners in sustainable railway track construction and while shedding light on associated challenges.
HegadekattiK. High speed rail network for India: a detailed analysis. SSRN Electronic Journal. Available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3246645. 2018.
2.
NTDPC. National Transport Development Policy Committee, India Transport Report: Moving India to 2032. Planning Commission, Government of India. Available at: ISBN 978-1-138-79598-3. 2014.
3.
RDSO. Guidelines For blanket layer provision on track formation with emphasis on heavy axle load train operation. Government of India Ministry of Railways. Epub ahead of print 2007. 2007.
AliuIAkoteyonISoladoyeO. Sand mining in African coastal regions: exploring the Driverse impacts and implications for environmental sustainability in Lagos, Nigeria. Cham: Springer, 2022.
6.
MundraSSindhiPRChandwaniV, et al.Crushed rock sand – an economical and ecological alternative to natural sand to optimize concrete mix. Perspect Sci2016; 8(c): 345–347.
7.
SureshDChawlaS. Comparative life cycle assessment of railway subballast layer with natural and coal overburden aggregates in India. Int J Life Cycle Assess2022; 27(5): 704–718.
8.
SilvaHDOliveiraJRMJesusCMG. Are totally recycled hot mix asphalts a sustainable alternative for road paving?Resour Conserv Recycl2012; 60(c): 38–48.
9.
IndraratnaBSunQGrantJ. Behaviour of subballast reinforced with used tyre and potential application in rail tracks. Transp Geotech2017; 12: 26–36.
10.
IndraratnaBSunQHeitorA, et al.Performance of rubber tire-confined capping layer under cyclic loading for railroad conditions. J Mater Civ Eng2018; 30(3): 1–7.
11.
MorataMSaboridoC. Recycled aggregates with enhanced performance for railways track bed and form layers. J Sustain Metall2017; 3(2): 322–335.
12.
QiYIndraratnaBTawkM. Use of recycled rubber elements in track stabilisation. In: Geo-Congress 2020 GSP 319, 2020, pp. 49–59. 2020.
13.
ChamlingPKPatraSHaldarS, et al.Comprehensive study on mechanical and environmental characteristics of cement-treated granular steel slag as subballast layer. J Mater Civ Eng2022; 34(10): 4388.
14.
CastroGSaicoJde MouraE, et al.Evaluating different track sub-ballast solutions considering traffic loads and sustainability. Infrastructures2024; 9(3): 54.
15.
CastroGPiresJMottaR, et al.Numerical and experimental study of the unsaturated hydraulic behavior of a railroad track profile considering fouled ballast subjected to tropical climate condition. In: Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Transportation Geotechnics, 2021, pp. 467–482. 2021.
16.
GuimarãesACRFilhoJCSCastroCD. Contribution to the use of alternative material in heavy haul railway sub-ballast layer. Transp Geotech2021; 30: 100524.
17.
de Freitas AlvesTMoraes PereiraPAMottaR, et al.Three-dimensional numerical modelling of railway track with varying air voids content bituminous subballast. Road Mater Pavement Des2022; 23(2): 414–432.
18.
AndersonJSRoseJG. In-situ test measurement techniques within railway track structures. In: Proceedings of the ASME/IEEE/ASCE Joint Rail Conference, JRC 2008, 2008, pp. 187–207. 2008.
19.
TeixeiraPFCasasCBachillerA, et al.Improvements in high-speed ballasted track design. Transp Res Rec2006; 1943(1): 43–49.
20.
EbrahimiATuncer EdilJJamesT. Reconstruction of railroad beds with industrial byproducts and in situ material reclamation. National Center for Freight & Infrastructure Research & Education, College of Engineering Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering University of Wisconsin, Madison. Report no. CFIRE 02-04. 2010.
21.
BressiSDumontAGPartlMN. A new laboratory methodology for optimization of mixture design of asphalt concrete containing reclaimed asphalt pavement material. Mater Struct2016; 49(12): 4975–4990.
22.
HashemianSENejadFMMortezaE. Laboratory and numerical investigation on the behavior of reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) as railway track subballast layer. Constr Build Mater2023; 384(327): 131442.
23.
BanerjeeLChawlaSDashSK. Performance evaluation of coal mine overburden as a potential subballast material in railways with additional improvement using geocell. J Mater Civ Eng2020; 32(8): 1–13.
24.
KhatibH. IEA World energy outlook 2011—A comment. Energy Policy2012; 48: 737–743.
25.
ChikkaturAPSagarADSankarTL. Sustainable development of the Indian coal sector. Energy2009; 34(8): 942–953.
MukherjeeSPahariDP. Underground and opencast coal mining methods in India: a comparative assessment. Space Cult India2019; 7(1): 39–55.
28.
AhirwalJMaitiSK. Assessment of soil properties of different land uses generated due to surface coal mining activities in tropical Sal (Shorea robusta) forest, India. CATENA2016; 140: 155–163.
29.
NathBChawlaSGuptaRK. A study on utilization of mine overburden as a replacement of base and sub-base layers on rural roads. In: WengM.-CLeeJLiuY (eds) Current geotechnical engineering aspects of civil infrastructures. Cham: Springer, 2019, pp.83–100.
30.
SkarzyńskaKM. Reuse of coal mining wastes in civil engineering—part 2: utilization of minestone. Waste Manag1995; 15(2): 83–126.
AgarwalVK. Geotechnical investigation of coal mine refuse for backfilling in mines. National Institute of Technology Rourkela. Availableat: http://ethesis.nitrkl.ac.in/1348/. 2009.
33.
BanerjeeLChawlaSDashSK. Investigations on cyclic loading behavior of geocell stabilized tracks with coal overburden refuse recycled as subballast material. Transp Geotech2023; 40(7): 100969.
34.
BeheraSKMishraDPGhoshCN, et al.Characterization of lead–zinc mill tailings, fly ash and their mixtures for paste backfilling in underground metalliferous mines. Environ Earth Sci2019; 78(14): 1–13.
35.
MishraADasSKReddyKR. Potential use of coal mine overburden waste rock as sustainable geomaterial: review of properties and research challenges. J Hazard Toxic Radioact Waste2024; 28(1): 1–17.
36.
StolboushkinAYIvanovAIStorozhenkoGI, et al.Use of overburden rocks from open-pit coal mines and waste coals of Western Siberia for ceramic brick production with a defect-free structure. IOP Conf Ser Earth Environ Sci2017; 84(1): 012045.
37.
GayanaBCChandarK. A study on suitability of iron ore overburden waste rock for partial replacement of coarse aggregates in concrete pavements. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng2018; 431(10): 102012.
38.
MishraADasSKReddyKR. Use of coal mine overburden as sustainable fine aggregate in cement mortar. J Mater Civ Eng2023; 35(9): 15424.
39.
GuptaAKPaulB. A review on utilisation of coal mine overburden dump waste as underground mine filling material: a sustainable approach of mining. Int J Min Miner Eng2015; 6(2): 172–186.
40.
JenaBSarkarPKarakSK. Feasibility of incorporating coal mine overburden material as construction-grade fine aggregate. Part Sci Technol2024; 42(8): 1333–1342.
41.
MishraADasSKReddyKR. Life cycle assessment of processing alternate sands for sustainable construction: coal mine overburden sand versus manufactured sand. J Build Eng2023; 75(80): 107042.
42.
MaryOLKrishnanVR. Experimental investigations on the use of coal mine overburden as partial replacement for fine aggregate. Int J Innov Res Sci Eng Technol2016; 5(12): 20414–20418.
43.
MishraADasSKReddyKR. Characterization and environmental sustainability of open pit coal mine overburden waste rock as pavement geomaterial. Transp Geotech2023; 42(3): 101094.
44.
MishraADixitASinghAK, et al.Strength, deformation, and environmental impact assessment of cement stabilized mine overburden soil. J Clean Prod2024; 447: 141475.
45.
IslamNRabhaSSubramanyamKS, et al.Geochemistry and mineralogy of coal mine overburden (waste): a study towards their environmental implications. Chemosphere2021; 274: 129736.
46.
MandalKKumarATripathiN, et al.Characterization of different road dusts in opencast coal mining areas of India. Environ Monit Assess2012; 184(6): 3427–3441.
47.
RathoreASPradhanMDeoSV. Evaluation of coal mine overburden clay for assessing its suitability for brick making. Int J Appl Environ Sci2020; 15(1): 63–75.
48.
SahooBPSahuHBPradhanDS. Geotechnical and geochemical characterization of coal mine waste for restoring environment. In: NexGen Technologies for Mining and Fuel Industries, 2017. 2017.
49.
RaiAKPaulBSinghG. A study on physico chemical properties of overburden dump materials from selected coal mining areas of Jharia coalfields, Jharkhand, India. Int J Environ Sci2011; 1(6): 1350–1360.
50.
SinghPKSinghMPVolkmannN, et al.Petrological characteristics of lower Gondwana coal from Singrauli coalfield, Madhya Pradesh, India. Int J Oil Gas Coal Technol2014; 8(2): 194–220.
51.
YaseenSPalASinghS, et al.A study of physico-chemical characteristics of overburden dump materials from selected coal mining areas of Raniganj coal fields, Jharkhand, India. Glob J. Sci Front Res Environ Earth Sci2012; 12(1): 7–13.
52.
MohantyMBiswalDRMohapatraSS. A systematic review exploring the utilization of coal mining and processing wastes as secondary aggregate in sub-base and base layers of pavement. Constr Build Mater2023; 368(9): 130408.
53.
ShreekantRLArunaMHarshaV. Utilisation of mine waste in the construction industry – A critical review. Int J Earth Sci Eng2016; 9(1): 182–195.
MishraADasSKReddyKR. Processing coalmine overburden waste rock as replacement to natural sand: environmental sustainability assessment. Sustainability2022; 14(22): 14853.
56.
ChandraSSinhaS. Investigation of strength and long-term durability properties of stabilized coal mine overburden material for base and subbase layer of pavement. Eng Technol Appl Sci Res2024; 14(4): 15797–15804.
57.
MishraADasSKReddyKR. Use of crushed coal mine overburden as sustainable aggregate in pavement design. Sustainable Materials in Civil Infrastructure, pp. 137–150. 2024.
58.
DasSKJainSMishraA, et al.Present status and future challenges in evaluation of industrial by-products and mine tailings as a geomaterial. Indian Geotech J2024; 54(5): 1779–1798.
59.
LiDSussmannTSeligE. Procedure for railway track granular layer thickness determination. Pueblo, CO: Association of American Railroads, Transportation Technology Center. Report no. R-898. 1996.
60.
ShahuJTYudhbirKameswara RaoNSV. A rational method for design of railroad track foundation. Soils Found2000; 40(6): 1–10.
61.
BanerjeeLChawlaSDashSK. Application of geocell reinforced coal mine overburden waste as subballast in railway tracks on weak subgrade. Constr Build Mater2020; 265(1): 120774.
62.
JuwarkarAAJambhulkarHP. Phytoremediation of coal mine spoil dump through integrated biotechnological approach. Bioresour Technol2008; 99(11): 4732–4741.
63.
KunduNKGhoseMK. Shelf life of stock-piled topsoil of an opencast coal mine. Environ Conserv1997; 24(1): 24–30.
64.
IndraratnaBRujikiatkamjornCChiaroG. Characterization of compacted coal wash as structural fill material. In: GeoCongress 2012: State of the Art and Practice in Geotechnical Engineering, 2012, pp. 3826–3834. 2012.
65.
OkogbueEC. The potentials of Nigerian coal-reject as a construction material. Eng Geol1991; 30(3): 337–356.
66.
MallickSRMishraMK. Evaluation of clinker stabilized fly ash-mine overburden mix as sub-base construction material for mine haul roads. Geotech Geol Eng2017; 35(4): 1629–1644.
67.
RajakGIslavathSRKumarH. Stability analysis of underground developed pillars of opencast mine using three-dimensional finite element method authored. J Mines Met Fuels2022; 70(6): 280–287.
68.
SkarzyńskaKM. Reuse of coal mining wastes in civil engineering — part 1: properties of minestone. Waste Manag1995; 15(1): 3–42.
69.
KarfakisMGBowmanCHTopuzE. Characterization of coal-mine refuse as backfilling material. Geotech Geol Eng1996; 14(2): 129–150.
70.
LiuZZhangCQuX. Study on the parameter optimization and strength mechanism of coal gangue emulsified asphalt mixture. Adv Mater Sci Eng2020; 2020(6): 1–12.
71.
MitchellJK. Fundamentals of soil behaviour. Berkeley, CA: University of California, 2005.
72.
BeheraBMishraMK. Strength behaviour of surface coal mine overburden-fly ash mixes stabilised with quick lime. Int J Min Reclam Env2012; 26(1): 38–54.
73.
MallickSRVermaAKRaoKU. Characterization of coal mine overburden and assessment as mine haul road construction material. J Inst Eng India Ser D2017; 98(2): 167–176.
74.
ChaulyaSKSinghRSChakrabortyMK, et al.Bioreclamation of coal mine overburden dumps in India. Land Contam Recl2000; 8(3): 189–199.
75.
BrahmamAGSisindreeD. Experimental examination on utilization of processed mine overburden sand by substituted to river sand in construction. Int J Inno Technol Explor Eng2020; 9(5): 1858–1866.
76.
KaranSKKumarASamadderSR. Evaluation of geotechnical properties of overburden dump for better reclamation success in mining areas. Environ Earth Sci2017; 76(22): 1–8.
77.
AshfaqMLalMHMoghalAAB, et al.Carbon footprint analysis of coal gangue in geotechnical engineering applications. Indian Geotech J2020; 50(4): 646–654.
78.
MahamayaMDasSK. Characterization of mine overburden and fly ash as a stabilized pavement material. Part Sci Technol2017; 35(6): 660–666.
79.
RanjanGRaoASR. - Basic and applied soil mechanics. New Delhi, India: New Age International Publishers, 2005.
80.
AshfaqMHeeralalMMoghalAAB. Utilization of coal gangue for earthworks: sustainability perspective. In: HazarikaHMadabhushiGSPYasuharaKBergadoDT (eds) Advances in sustainable construction and resource management. Singapore: Springer, 2021, pp.203–218.
81.
IndraratnaB. Geotechnical characterization of blended coal tailings for construction and rehabilitation work. Q J Eng Geol Hydrogeol1994; 27(4): 353–361.
82.
LambeTWWhitmanRV. Soil mechanics. New York: Wiley, 1969.
83.
VuppaladadiyamSSVBaigZTSoomroAF, et al.Characterisation of overburden waste and industrial waste products for coal mine rehabilitation. Int J Min Reclam Env2019; 33(8): 517–526.
84.
RanaVMaitiSK. Differential distribution of metals in tree tissues growing on reclaimed coal mine overburden dumps, Jharia coal field (India). Environ Sci Pollut Res2018; 25(10): 9745–9758.
85.
RainbowKM. Advances in mining science and technology. In: WhittakarBN (ed) Proceedings, reclamation, treatment and utilization of coal mining wastes. Nottingham: Elsevier Science, 1991.
86.
TaylorRK. Composition and engineering properties of British colliery discard. Bretby: National Coal Board, 1988.
87.
SinghKNNarzaryD. Geochemical characterization of mine overburden strata for strategic overburden-spoil management in an opencast coal mine. Environ Chall2021; 3(1): 100060.
88.
EqueenuddinSMTripathySSahooPK, et al.Geochemistry of ochreous precipitates from coal mine drainage in India. Environ Earth Sci2010; 61(4): 723–731.
89.
BuragohainJMendheVAVarmaAK, et al.Organo-lithotype controls on cleat/fractures, matrix-associated pores, and physicomechanical properties of coal seams of Raniganj coalfield, India. ACS Omega2021; 6(31): 20218–20248.
90.
KarDPalitDBordhomanP. Study of physio-chemical charecteristics of overburden dump soil in selected coal mining areas of Raniganj coal fields, West Bengal, India. Int Res J Nat Appl Sci2017; 4(6).
