Abstract
In open-cast coal mining, blasting should be optimized. The efficiency of blast fragmentation must be improved in order to enable this. The sustainability of Ammonium Nitrate Fuel Oil (ANFO) and Site Mixed Emulsion (SME) explosives is examined in this paper using a comprehensive framework that goes beyond conventional productivity metrics. The study evaluates 115 controlled blasts conducted at an operational open-cast coal mine in India using digital technologies like drone photogrammetry, artificial intelligence (AI)-based predictive modeling, and automated image analysis. Important performance indicators include the powder factor, fragmentation efficiency, and blast-induced ground vibrations (Peak Particle Velocity, PPV). The results showed that in dry geological conditions, ANFO works better than SME. For instance, the average D80 of ANFO is 230 mm instead of 280 mm, and its powder factor is 3.27 m3/kg, while the SME's is 2.00 m3/kg. Furthermore, the PPV values of ANFO blasts were lower. It has been discovered that the choice of explosives varies by location, and in certain situations, ANFO may be more effective and ecologically friendly. The study presents a technology-driven, integrated blasting framework that can support the global sustainable development goals agenda, increase productivity, and lessen environmental impact.
Keywords
Introduction
In the global mining industry, blasting operations are crucial as the main method of accessing coal seams (Admin and Admin, 2025; Taiwo et al., 2023). The coal mining sector has seen significant changes as a result of tougher regulations, more environmental awareness, and a strong emphasis on making company operations more sustainable (Samudrapom, 2025). Open-cast mining provides several operational advantages, including increased production rates and cheaper labor costs. However, its major environmental problems have drawn more attention (Blasting, n.d.). The most common outcomes are widespread deforestation, excessive dust, excessive noise pollution, and contamination of groundwater resources (Blasting, n.d.). Traditional mining operations must be reconsidered as people worldwide become increasingly concerned about the environmental effects of the mining sector. This expectation, which extends beyond just observing the law, emphasizes the need for obtaining and maintaining a “social license to operate” from affected communities and the wider public (Komnitsas, 2020; Moffat et al., 2015). These kind of endorsements increasingly require a track record of social responsibility and environmental stewardship in company (Thakur et al., 2024). Recent developments in the industry indicate that social and environmental considerations are becoming vital to the operation of heavy resource industries such as mining, with a direct impact on their future growth and success (Samudrapom, 2025).
Sustainable blasting aims to strike the best balance between reducing overall costs including downstream costs like crushing and hauling, environmental impact, and safety hazards rather than maximizing each of these separately. By taking a comprehensive approach, blasting is guaranteed to improve the mine's overall sustainability profile (Tajvidi Asr et al., 2019).
As a result, the industrial sector is currently implementing sustainable practices as a strategic and moral imperative for its survival and profitability (Hilson and Murck, 2000). A comprehensive approach that includes environmental stewardship, economic viability, and social well-being in all phases of mining operations is what makes mining sustainable (Azapagic, 2003). This model goes beyond just following the law. It includes a wide range of methods that aim to reduce environmental impact and improve resource use (Jenkins, 2004).
Some of the main parts of sustainable mining are using fewer resources, disturbing less land, using progressive rehabilitation, managing waste according to circular economy principles, and making sure that water is used responsibly (Gorman and Dzombak, 2018). In this context, blasting is not just a separate operational task; it is a key control point for the mine's overall sustainability profile. A sustainable paradigm rethinks blasting as the first and most energy-efficient step in comminution, which is usually seen as a way to cut costs (Mboyo et al., 2024). Comminution, which includes crushing and grinding downstream, is one of the mining value chain's most energy-hungry processes (Tromans, 2008). The size and shape of the particles in the blasted rock, which is called fragmentation, has a direct effect on how well these later processes work (Rao and Mohanty, 2002).
By improving blast design to create smaller and more even pieces, the amount of energy needed for mechanical crushing and grinding is greatly reduced (Norgate and Haque, 2009). This decrease in energy use downstream directly lowers a mine's carbon footprint, making a direct connection between blast design choices and climate action goals, such as those set out in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Gregory, 2022).
Historically, open-cast mining operations prioritized overall productivity and rock breaking above the larger picture of the ecosystem. This traditional method frequently produced unintended consequences that necessitated further corrective steps, such as costly secondary blasting to decrease oversize or fines, or paying impacted communities for damages and difficulties. Blasting technology must be enhanced in order to achieve both productivity and sustainability goals. This includes doing things to keep flyrock under control, lowering air overpressure, and reducing ground vibrations (GVs) caused by blasts. People have shifted away from ultra-productivity in response to public pressure and legislation requiring less environmental damage. As a result, flyrock and GVs have emerged as critical performance indicators that may influence mining operations’ approval, public perception, and production costs. These days, it is becoming more widely accepted that controlling these environmental elements is essential for mining (Bhatawdekar et al., 2021; Jide Muili et al., 2014; Raina, 2023; Yamaguchi et al., 2013).
Rock blasting is a traditional method used in open-pit mining to break up large rock masses for easier loading, hauling, and transportation. The fundamental physical mechanism for rock fragmentation during blasting is the complex sequential mechanism that is started when an explosive is detonated in a borehole. Rapid ejection of high-pressure gases and a high-velocity shock wave are produced by this detonation (Anders Persson et al., 1992; Kutter and Fairhurst, 1971; Prasad et al., 2017).
The shockwave from the explosion also breaks and shatters the rock around the hole. A zone of significant damage is created by a network of radial cracks that emerge from the blast hole as a result of this initial crushing (Prasad et al., 2017). The shock wave reflects into the rock as a tension wave when it comes into contact with a free face, or an unconfined surface of the rock mass. This reflected tension wave is essential to effective fragmentation that ultimately results in rock fragments that are broken up and separated as planned because it encourages the lateral crack propagation between previous radial cracks (Faramarzi et al., 2013). The driving force of the expanding high-pressure gases created by the explosive's chemical reaction penetrates and extends these new cracks after the blast action is over. The decomposed rock is lifted and propped apart by this gas pressure, creating a muck pile that can then be mined mechanically (Cudzilo et al., 2002; Li et al., 2024; Younes et al., 2022; Zhang et al., 2020).
Variations in the explosive's characteristics, different blast design parameters (such as burden, spacing, hole depth, and stemming, among others), and the geo-mechanical characteristics of the rock mass all influence how effectively or successfully a fragmentation can be carried out. These components must be arranged to interact with one another as best they can in order for the required fragmentation to occur.
How rocks break affects many aspects of a mining operation, referred to as the “mine-to-mill” approach (Doc, 2024; Shields et al., 2024). Things may move more slowly and cost more if the rock is too large or the pieces are too small. Large rocks may be more expensive to blast and may have negative environmental effects. These tiny pieces can consume energy and complicate the transportation and processing of materials. Additionally, poor fragmentation results in longer haul and load times, increased fuel expenses, and faster equipment wear. It can alter how much energy crushers and mills use (Kanchibotla et al., 1999; Kumar, 2025). Improved mining and less environmental damage are two benefits of knowing the connections between these processes. A collection of comparable key performance indicators (KPIs) that take into account environmental responsibility, financial viability, and operational effectiveness when assessing a successful blast operation. These consist of fragmentation quality, powder factor (PF), and GV caused by blasts (Naresh et al., 2024).
Powder Factor: This crucial indicator shows how well explosive energy has been used. The amount of explosive material that can be used per volume or tonne of rock removed is its definition. This is a crucial parameter for designing and optimizing blasting conditions, and it not only serves as an energy efficiency indicator but also a direct index of the cost of explosives used in practice (Agyei and Nkrumah, 2021).
The efficiency and cost of processing as a function of the amount of rock fragmentation invested (for example, as measured by D80, the particle size below which 80% of the material passes) have a significant impact on downstream mining operations. The presence of excessive oversize and/or fines is one of the serious operational consequences of bad fragmentation. Although secondary blasting is costly for these large fragments, both undersized and oversized material can reduce crushing and milling efficiency, increase fuel consumption on load-and-haul equipment, and cause needless wear on loading and haulage machinery. On the other hand, optimal fragmentation conditions boost excavation efficiency and transfer less energy to later stages of the process (Agyei and Nkrumah, 2021; McKee et al., 2013).
Ground Vibration: The blast-induced GVs that are a threat to public health and safety are measured in millimeters per second by Peak Particle Velocity (PPV). Within a certain radius, excessive GVs can harm infrastructure, disrupt local ecosystems, and exceed legal limits. The important point is that PPV levels should never surpass a specific value in accordance with prescribed regulation limits, such as those set by the Directorate General of Mines Safety (DGMS) in India, in order to comply, minimize environmental disturbance, and maintain positive community relations (DGMS Tech circular no.7 of 1997; Sing et al., 2023).
These three KPIs pose a challenging blast design optimization problem because of their interdependence and non-isolation of relationships. For example, finer fragmentation typically requires a larger PF, which could significantly impact GV strength because of blast design and rock mass condition (Mining Doc, 2025). Sustainable blasting aims to strike the best balance between reducing overall costs including downstream costs like crushing and hauling, environmental impact, and safety hazards rather than maximizing each of these separately. By taking a comprehensive approach, blasting is guaranteed to improve the mine's overall sustainability profile.
The effectiveness of blasting depends on the geological characteristics of the rock mass and the explosive selection for these circumstances. Typically, density, velocity of detonation (VOD), water resistance, and energy transfer efficiency are used to select and evaluate explosives for open-pit mining (Bahloul et al., 2024; Dotto and Pourrahimian, 2024).
Density: The mass per unit volume (explosive density), which is typically given in kg/m3 or g/cc, is used to measure explosives (Vieira and Braga, 2023). More energy is usually injected into a borehole when the explosives are denser, which makes them useful for better rock fragmentation or breaking harder host rock (Vieira and Braga, 2023). For example, ammonium nitrate fuel oil (ANFO) normally has a density of about 0.8 g/cc, whereas Site Mixed Emulsion (SME) explosive has a density of about 1.2 g/cc. The quantity of explosive energy contained in a blast hole is directly impacted by this density difference. ANFO is suited for use in sandstone, clay, and shale strata because it has a higher gaseous energy than shock energy. However, because the SME has a higher shock energy than gaseous, it performs significantly better in very hard rock formation (Dotto and Pourrahimian, 2024).
Velocity of detonation: VOD is the speed at which a detonation wave travels through a high-explosive column. It is a basic indicator of explosive energy output, and depending on the cohesive nature and form of the explosive, the value typically ranges from 2500 to 7000 m/s (Strayos, 2025). Additionally, the force that fractures rock close to the borehole is known as detonation pressure, and it rises as VOD does, according to fundamental physics rules in physical aspects. As a result, a lower VOD value results in a lower detonation pressure and less shock energy, which produces an explosive that performs poorly (Strayos, 2025).
In mining and breaking applications where water is present in bore holes, water resistance is essential to maintaining explosive performance. Since ANFO is a porous material, water can easily attack it. In fact, this tendency to absorb water is so strong that it should not be used in wet boreholes where the charge may be saturated by the water's density. However, because the SME explosives are emulsified, which gives them good water resistance, they can operate dependably in damp environments. The use of more costly, comparatively waterproof explosives is required when boreholes contain water, which raises the cost of blasting (Maranda et al., 2025).
Energy transfer: An explosive's ability to effectively transfer energy into the rock mass, causing fragmentation and movement, ultimately determines how well it will function. The main sources of energy transfer are the shock wave and expanding gases produced during detonation (Cudzilo et al., 2002). An ideal distribution of energy within the rock mass is necessary to achieve a homogeneous or desired fragmentation (Maranda et al., 2025). Air gaps between an explosive charge in a hole can absorb and dissipate a significant amount of energy during the shock process, which can result in poor breakage performance (Sanchidrián et al., 2006).
The particular geological and environmental features at a mining site have a significant impact on the best explosives selection. High VOD explosives like SME are frequently used in open-pit mining operations to break hard rock into finer fragments, but these blasting techniques may increase GV and back break, which are undesirable blast operational effects (Prasad et al., 2017). However, for softer or heavily jointed rock, lower VOD explosives (like ANFO) that drastically heave might be a more cost-effective option (Prasad et al., 2017). Matching the impedance of the explosive (calculated as density multiplied by VOD) with the impedance of the surrounding rock mass (rock density multiplied by rock velocity) is another crucial component for blast design optimization (Jha, 2020). Achieving this impedance match maximizes the use of explosive energy, resulting in more efficient rock breaking. It also reduces energy loss or waste, which could cause unwanted sensations, such as excessive GV and noise. Since no single explosive can consistently meet all geotechnical requirements, this interdependent relationship emphasizes the need for customized explosive selection.
Two common bulk explosives used in open-pit mining are SME and ANFO. ANFO is an explosive composed of porous prilled ammonium nitrate mixed with fuel oil, which is highly prized for its affordability, ease of use, and oxygen-balanced mixture that is appropriate for dry boreholes (Vieira and Braga, 2023). Despite having a lower pressure and detonation velocity than other explosives, it produces a large volume of gas when detonated, which accounts for its high efficiency (Office of Technology Transfer, Western Regional Office, Office of Surface Mining, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1977). The primary disadvantage of this coating is its low water resistance, which renders it inappropriate as soon as the environment becomes damp or the moisture content renders the coating ineffective.
SME explosives, on the other hand, are made by combining emulsified ammonium nitrate with fuel oil and additional ingredients. Because of its formulation, it is safer to use in difficult wet and confined conditions. It also has a higher energy content, better water resistance, and generally higher VOD values. Compared to traditional AN-based emulsions, it is safer and simpler to load boreholes, especially for bulk explosives made inside the boreholes (AMC Consultants, n.d.).
The performance of ANFO and SME in various geologies is determined by their fundamentally different chemical compositions and physical characteristics (such as density, porosity, and water content) (Fabin and Jarosz, 2021). Although the cost of ANFO makes it the best option in dry conditions, its vulnerability to moisture attack is a major operational disadvantage (Aydan, 2017). Although this approach may be more expensive, it offers improved performance, durability, and dependability when there is moisture present. Mine operators should base their planning decisions on site-specific conditions and the trade-off between cost and performance in specific environmental circumstances in order to get the best blasting results.
To better understand the advantages and disadvantages of ANFO and SME explosives in specific mining applications, a comparison between them is also necessary. Early research focused on more specific questions based on either individual performance indicators like fragmentation or general economic drivers like cost-effectiveness, but lacked a comprehensive framework that included broader sustainability aspects. Previous comparative studies highlight the context-dependent nature of explosive performance. Hossaini and Sen (2006) conducted a study in an open-cut coal mine and found that slurry explosives (which are chemically similar to emulsions) generated significantly higher GVs than ANFO under comparable blasting conditions, a finding attributed to the higher shock energy of the slurry (Hossaini et al., 2006). Conversely, a study by Dhekne et al. (2020) in limestone quarries concluded that SME explosives were more effective than ANFO at reducing the generation of oversized boulders, suggesting superior fragmentation performance in that specific rock type (Dhekne et al., 2020). Furthermore, studies on fume emissions indicate that different explosives produce varying quantities of toxic gases like COx and NOx, adding another dimension to their environmental profiles (Biessikirski et al., 2025). Research by Vieira and Braga (2023) analyzing explosive parameters indicates a distinct correlation between VOD and optimal rock type. They report that explosives with a high VOD, such as emulsions, generate a powerful impact and high shock energy. This “shattering” effect is highly effective and suitable for fragmenting hard, competent, and brittle rocks like granite, gneiss, and basalt. Conversely, explosives with a lower VOD, most notably ANFO, produce lower shock energy but significantly higher gas energy. This “heaving” action is less suited for shattering hard rock but is found to be ideal for softer or more porous formations such as sand stone. The sustained gas pressure from an ANFO detonation is more effective at penetrating and extending existing joints and bedding planes, making it a suitable and efficient choice for sedimentary rocks such as limestone and sandstone (Vieira and Braga, 2023).
The primary benefits of using ANFO in mining are its low cost and ease of production in large quantities (Orica UK Ltd, 2011). Furthermore, once the oxygen level is maintained, few harmful gases are released, and manipulation is comparatively safe (Fabin and Jarosz, 2021). ANFO's classification as a non-ideal high explosive (NIHE) and its extremely low water resistance make it cumbersome in wet blastholes because of the high energy loss through water. High porosity, low density, and the separation of fuel and oxidizer phases are characteristics of NIHEs. These features often result in reduced and/or inconsistent VOD, which can affect controlled detonation for low efficiency (Office of Technology Transfer, Western Regional Office, Office of Surface Mining, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1977).
SME explosives are superior to common AN-based formulations in a number of ways (AMC Consultants, n.d.). Higher energy density, better water resistance and generally higher VOD values are due to their emulsified structure (Balakrishnan et al., 2019). Due to such properties, SME becomes of high interest in tough conditions such as wet boreholes or narrow rock masses because of SME can be manufactured at the place of charging and Liquid cartridged explosives are more hazardous and less convenient for loading than bulk emulsion explosives (AMC Consultants, n.d.). Admittedly, SME is slightly more expensive than ANFO and the higher VOD of SME may lead to excessive fragmentation and higher GVs in arid geological formations (Balakrishnan et al., 2019; Heryadi et al., 2024; Orica UK Ltd, 2011). The selection of an appropriate explosive type is critically dependent on the geomechanical properties of the rock mass being blasted. A key parameter influencing fragmentation is the explosive's VOD, which dictates the nature of the energy released (Salmi et al., 2023).
Furthermore, considering different borehole diameters, there is limited evidence suggesting that SME explosives may be more effective than ANFO in mitigating boulder generation, even in limestone quarries (Dhekne et al., 2020). Fume emissions are another important environmental factor, in addition to these performance-based metrics. Research indicates that although TNT boosters can elevate emissions of ANFO and emulsion explosives, replacing TNT with dynamite as a primer can significantly diminish overall fumes (Tete et al., 2013).
No explosive is universally superior; effectiveness depends on specific geological and operational factors. Even though SME is more expensive (Orica UK Ltd, 2011), it is necessary in wet or hostile environments where ANFO can take advantage of its flaws, even though it is clearly more efficient and cost-effective in cooler, drier conditions (Fabin and Jarosz, 2021; Orica UK Ltd, 2011). This shows that choosing the best explosive is an ongoing process (Heryadi et al., 2024). To make the most powerful and long-lasting blasts, it's important to know a lot about both the natural properties of each explosive (Fabin and Jarosz, 2021) and the local geological and environmental conditions at the site. This context-based performance assessment is essential for customizing blast solutions to meet the specific requirements of each mine (Chikande and Zvarivadza, 2017; Heryadi et al., 2024).
A thorough study comparing ANFO and SME in terms of overall blastability for sustainable blasting does not exist, even though both are widely used in open-pit mining. Most of the work ignores important sustainability indicators, like GVs and environmental issues, in favor of focusing on things like cost or fragmentation. This narrow focus makes it hard for mine operators to make long-term decisions that are fully integrated (Alipour et al., 2011; Fernández et al., 2022; Heryadi et al., 2024; Nikkhah et al., 2022; Shehu and Hashim, 2020; Simamora and Purwanto, 2025; Yernaidu et al., 2022).
This study aims to substantially address a major lack of information regarding the comparison between ANFO and SME explosives in actual mining contexts by delivering comprehensive comparative evaluation results. A particular emphasis will examine PF, fragmentation efficiency (D80), and blast-induced GVs (PPV), while also systematically documenting changes in blast design parameters such as burden, spacing, and hole depth. To achieve these objectives, methodological innovation is essential to integrate advanced digital techniques, including WipFrag image analysis, drone photogrammetry, and artificial intelligence (AI)-driven software (Strayos), into these assessments to enhance tracking accuracy and test reliability. This combination of technologies can help get around the problems that traditional methods have, such as user bias and lack of data, by making things clearer and linking results to larger sustainable goals. Lastly, this work directly improves mine-to-mill operations by giving a detailed framework for choosing explosives. This makes sure that the choices made while drilling and blasting are the right ones for improving overall cost and environmental efficiency (Chikande and Zvarivadza, 2017; Grouhel, 1991; Heryadi et al., 2024; Pyra and Żołądek, 2025).
Materials and methods
Study site description
The comprehensive comparative study of ANFO and SME explosives was conducted at the RG OCP-II open-cast coal mine, situated in Telangana, India. This mine is an active surface coal mining operation, with approximate geographical coordinates of 18.6782 latitude and 79.5406 longitude. The current operational depth of the mine extends to 300 m.
Geological setting and stratigraphy
The specific blast zones selected for this study within the RG OCP-II mine were characterized by a relatively stable rock mass with minimal faulting, a geological condition deemed ideal for conducting a comparative analysis of explosive performance. The geological profile of the study area primarily consists of a thin layer of soil cover, underlain by approximately 250 m of Barren Measures and Barakar formations. The regional geological strike of the Gondwana sediments in the area is predominantly Northwest-Southeast (NNW-SSE) to Northwest-Southeast (NW-SE), with corresponding dips ranging from 6° to 12° towards the East-Northeast (ENE) to Northeast (NE).
The stratigraphic sequence of the RG OC-II Coal Mine, established from subsurface data, is presented in Table 1. This sequence highlights the geological formations encountered in the mining area, providing crucial context for understanding the rock mass characteristics influencing blasting performance.
Stratigraphic sequence of RG OC-II coal mine (Bhaskar et al., 2015).
Seven distinct correlatable coal seams, namely IA, I, II, IIIB, IIIA, III, and IV, occur in descending order from top to bottom within this stratigraphic column. Structurally, the area is affected by one major fault running along the Northwest-Southeast direction, exhibiting a north-easterly down throw of approximately 300 m. Additionally, three minor faults with throws ranging from 5 to 20 m are present. The detailed geological and operational context of the RG OCP-II mine is vital for understanding the specific conditions under which the comparative analysis of ANFO and SME was conducted. Understanding the rock types, their thickness, and their sequence is fundamental for interpreting blast performance, as different lithologies respond uniquely to explosive energy (Fernández et al., 2022; Singh and Laurentian University, 2001) While the findings demonstrate clear performance differences between the explosives in this particular setting, the comprehensive site description facilitates future researchers and mine operators in assessing the generalizability of these results to other coal mines exhibiting similar geological and operational characteristics.
Operational context and mining method
The open-cast mining method has been adopted at RG OCP-II due to the potentiality of thin coal seams and its capacity to achieve high rates of recovery. The primary material transport system employed at the mine is a shovel-dumper combination.
In operational practice, where both coal and overburden (OB) are encountered, drilling is carried out from a level platform down to the coal seam. Following blasting, the OB material is leveled and excavated in slices using a backhoe or shovel. The blasted coal is similarly leveled and excavated by a backhoe. Subsequently, the bottom wedge-shaped OB portion is drilled, blasted, and excavated to the lower horizon, ensuring that the shovel and dumper operate on a horizontal plane for efficiency and safety. Dozers are utilized for leveling the blasted material.
Experimental design and blast execution
The experimental phase of this study involved the execution of a total of 115 blasts over a period of seven months at the RG OCP-II mine. An important feature of the experimental set-up was to carry out blasts at similar benches with same blast parameters using ANFO and SME explosives. This strict treatment was adopted to avoid the influence of confounding factors and to ensure that the directly measurable properties of an explosive were determined at uniform field conditions. This controlled setup adds great internal validity to the comparison of the performance values.
A consistent drill pattern of 4 by 5 m was employed, with boreholes drilled to a depth of 6 m. While the original text indicated SME explosives were used in the general field application description (Sudhakar and Patel, 2022), the comparative study specifically involved both ANFO and SME explosives being tested under these controlled conditions to optimize the PF. A staggered initiation design was utilized, which provided progressive burden relief. This design is crucial for allowing each blast hole to detonate in a controlled sequence, effectively minimizing the risk of cut-offs (premature termination of detonation) or excessive confinement of explosive energy. The implementation of this delay scheme consistently resulted in well-formed muck piles and uniform fragmentation across the blast area, which in turn facilitated efficient loading operations. Crucially, throughout all experimental blasts, GV levels were maintained within the regulatory thresholds established by the DGMS (DGMS Tech circular no.7 of 1997). Figure 1 shows the blast design and delay timing followed in RG OCP-II.
Drilling and firing layout of RG OCP-II (Sudhakar and Patel, 2022).
Instrumentation and data acquisition
The reliability and precision of this study's findings are significantly enhanced by the integration of advanced instrumentation and data acquisition technologies. These tools enabled comprehensive monitoring and analysis of various blasting parameters, from pre-blast planning to post-blast evaluation.
Three-dimensional AI software (Strayos)
Strayos is an example of a new type of platform that uses AI to make it possible for end-to-end integration across the mining value chain (Ali et al., 2025). These systems want to bring together processes that have always been separate, like geological surveying, data analysis, drilling, blasting, material handling, and mineral processing, into one analytical framework. These platforms make predictive analytics and data-informed decision-making easier by using advanced machine learning models that have been trained on large datasets of operational parameters and site images (Jung and Choi, 2021). They enable comprehensive trend analysis, promote cross-functional collaboration, and support the identification of performance optimization opportunities (Plavšić and Mišković, 2022) by managing data in one place. Ultimately, these technologies aim to improve the overall economic performance of mining companies by using systematic, data-driven methods to make operations more efficient and safety rules stronger (Blasting, n.d.).
Drone-based photogrammetry, guided by Differential Global Positioning System for geo-fencing flight paths, took high-resolution pictures of the blast site before the blast. After that, these pictures were uploaded to the Strayos platform, where they were automatically used to find hole collars and make detailed three-dimensional (3D) bench models. This feature made it possible to accurately superimpose the planned initiation pattern onto the actual bench topography. This made it possible to thoroughly evaluate burden relief and explosive confinement, both of which are very important for getting the most out of a blast. AI-based blasting platforms can predict what will happen after a blast, like how the rocks will break up, how the muck pile will look, and how much vibration there will be after the blast. Mine engineers can do this before they go into the field (Gebretsadik et al., 2024; Guo et al., 2024). These virtual simulations enable iterative optimization of blast designs within a virtual environment, permitting engineers to refine parameters and ascertain the most advantageous configuration prior to actual detonation (Elwahab et al., 2023; Shylaja and Prashanth, 2025). This changes blast design from a reactive, trial-and-error process to a proactive, predictive optimization workflow. After the blast, Strayos took and analyzed more drone images to find the muck pile and figure out the size distribution of the fragments using standard industry measures like D80. The AI can also predict the floor, automatically analyze the volume of blast holes, and automatically find geological features. These are all important for making blast designs better and avoiding problems like ore loss, dilution, and flyrock (Drilling and Blasting, n.d.). There are many benefits to using Strayos AI: It gets rid of user bias that often comes with manual photogrammetry, makes drilling safer by reducing the number of people who need to be in dangerous areas, improves drilling performance, and makes sure that blasts are safe and follow the rules (Strayos, 2023). Additionally, it helps promote sustainable mining practices by helping to cut down on waste and CO2 emissions (Pyra and Żołądek, 2025). Figure 2 shows hole collar detection and muck pile shape prediction and volume assessment by using Staryos software.
Hole collar detection, muck pile shape and volume assessment by using drones and Strayos software.
Total station: Principles and applications in volume calculation
The Total Station is a technologically advanced hybrid instrument that integrates a transit theodolite with an electronic distance meter. This device is capable of precisely measuring horizontal and vertical angles, as well as sloping distances, to determine the 3D coordinates of points in space.
In this study, the Total Station was employed for the critical task of surveying both pre-blast and post-excavation bench levels. This precise volumetric measurement capability allowed for the accurate ascertainment of the volume of rock produced by each blast. The data derived from the Total Station is foundational for calculating the PF, which is a key economic and energy-efficiency metric in blasting operations. Without accurate volume data, the reliability of PF calculations would be compromised, thereby undermining the quantitative assessment of explosive efficiency and its subsequent economic implications. Beyond volume calculation, Total Stations are widely applied in mining for general land surveying, mine planning, the layout of underground tunnels, and the precise location of mineral deposits (Ditta and Colson, 2018).
High-speed camera: Principles and applications in blast event analysis
This study used a high-speed camera to record the very fast and dynamic events that happen during blasting, which are too fast for the naked eye to see. For accurately judging how well blasting operations work, this equipment is very important.
The high-speed camera gave us very useful information for studying the small details of blast events, such as how blasts affected nearby buildings and vehicles, how to accurately determine the firing times of blast holes, and how to accurately describe how rocks moved and shifted. The system could take very accurate measurements of important things like blast hole firing times, gas ejection dynamics, and fly rock trajectory because it had special software like Pro Analyst®. High-speed imaging lets us measure explosions and the damage they cause in a way that helps us better understand and describe how they happen. This information can then be used to make explosives that are more accurate and effective (Fastec Imaging, 2018). You can use high-speed cameras and advanced imaging techniques like shadowgraphy to measure the speed of shock wave expansion and fragments (McNesby et al., 2016).
The high-speed camera gives us very detailed, millisecond-level information about how a blast works. This information is very useful for checking and improving blast design parameters, especially delay timing and initiation sequences. Engineers can find small problems or possible dangers that would be hard to see otherwise by visualizing how the rock actually breaks and moves. This lets engineers fine-tune designs to improve fragmentation and lower nuisance effects. This in-depth temporal analysis goes beyond just measuring outcomes to give a better idea of how the blast works.
Seismographs (micromate and minimate plus): Principles and applications in vibration monitoring
With the help of Instantel Micromate and Minimate Plus seismographs, we closely monitored the GVs from the blast. These reliable, robust instruments are equipped with a triaxial geophone transducer for measuring vibration levels easily. PPV is the most common way these levels are reported, in millimetres per second (mm/s). And then they have another channel to watch out for air over pressure that is measured in decibels (dB (L)).
Seismographs records the vibrations in multiple directions and is known for its high precision and ability to withstand harsh environmental conditions. These seismographs record vibrations in three key directions and are as follows:
Longitudinal (L): This measures vibrations along the direction of the blast or the path of the wave as it travels forward.
Vertical (V): This measures the up-and-down movement of the ground caused by the blast.
Transverse (T): This measures the side-to-side movement, perpendicular to the longitudinal direction.
By capturing vibrations in all three directions, these seismographs provide a comprehensive understanding of how blast waves affect the sur- rounding area, helping operators minimize potential damage and ensure safety (Ravikumar et al., 2025).
Seismographs can find and measure vibrations from 0.001 to 254 mm/s. They are made to find the maximum vector sum of the vibration, which gives a full picture of how the ground is moving. Data collected by these devices, which record occurrences surpassing a predetermined trigger threshold, are subsequently transferred to a personal computer for comprehensive analysis utilizing blastware software (Venkatesh et al., 2008). This analysis produces different reports, like waveform event reports, monitor logs, Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) analyses, and histogram reports. The FFT analysis is very important because it shows the velocity versus frequency distribution of a vibration in great detail. This is important for figuring out how likely it is that the vibration will cause structural damage, since the potential for damage is closely linked to the frequency of the vibration.
Seismographs are not just tools for measuring the PPV and Air Over Pressure; they are also important tools for making sure that rules are followed and for managing the legal and social risks that come with GVs caused by explosions (DGMS Technical Circular No.7 of 1997). The consistently lower PPV values seen with ANFO in this study are very important for social and regulatory compliance (Alipour et al., 2011). Minimizing GVs lowers the chance of structural damage, makes people in the area less annoyed and less likely to complain (Akkewar and Kant, 2022), and ultimately strengthens the mine's social license to operate. The ability to accurately record and analyze vibration waveforms and their frequency content provides objective evidence for assessing damage claims and enables engineers to implement targeted blast design modifications to control specific vibration characteristics, thereby protecting nearby structures and maintaining positive community relations (Roy, 2019).
Velocity of detonation recorder: Principles and significance
The VOD is an important property of explosive materials that affects how well they work and how well they break up rocks. It is defined as the speed at which the detonation wave moves through the explosive column (Strayos, 2025). One of the most important rules of explosive physics is that the detonation pressure, which is the main force that breaks up the rock around the borehole, is directly related to the square of the VOD (Bastante et al., 2022; Klapötke, 2019).
In this research, VOD measurements were executed utilizing Micro Trap VOD recorders from M/s MREL, Canada, and VOD Mate instruments. These devices can record VOD values continuously and can also record other changing parameters, like acceleration, pressure, and dynamic strain, along the length of the explosive column. Adding booster substances to the explosive column is a common way to keep VOD stable and under control, which makes sure that the rock mass breaks up evenly. When VOD goes down, so does the detonation pressure and the shock energy of the explosive, which can make the blast much less effective (Strayos, 2025).
VOD measurement is an important part of quality control for explosives because it makes sure they work as planned in the field (Strayos, 2025). Changes in in-hole VOD from what is expected or what is found in the lab can mean that the explosive is of poor quality, the loading was done wrong, or the environment is not good for the explosive, like when there is water in the boreholes (Cudzilo et al., 2002). The in-hole VOD is influenced by numerous factors, including the level of confinement, the unique formulation characteristics of the explosive, its density, the presence of sensitizing agents, temperature and temperature cycling, the size and type of the primer, the “sleep time” (the time the explosive stays in the borehole before detonating), borehole loading techniques, the overall blast design, the explosive column length, the specific blast environment, storage-shelf life, and the consistency of mixing in bulk loading systems (Strayos, 2025). So, continuous VOD monitoring provides real-time feedback that is necessary for getting the most out of explosives and fixing performance problems quickly. Figure 3 shows how to measure VOD with a micro trap.
Analysis of velocity of detonation (VOD) throughout the drill hole.
WipFrag image analysis software: Principles and applications in fragmentation analysis
WipFrag is an automated image-based granulometry system designed to estimate rock fragmentation through digital analysis of photographs and video frames (WipWare Inc, 2025). The software uses image processing algorithms to figure out the particle size distribution (PSD) from the pictures it takes. It can process data from varied sources, such as post-blast muck piles, stockpile samples, laboratory test materials, and aerial images acquired using unmanned aerial vehicles. Image-based techniques, such as WipFrag, have demonstrated the ability to yield segmentation and PSD results that closely correspond with conventional models and empirical methodologies (Amin and Salman, 2022). 3D image-based analyses of fragment size distributions in blasting operations exhibit enhanced accuracy and operational significance in comparison to empirical predictions (Figueiredo et al., 2023). These methods allow for quick, non-contact evaluation of fragmentation traits and provide viable substitutes for traditional sieving or manual measurement techniques.
The software has a deep learning algorithm that makes it possible to automatically find scales and slopes. It can also find the edges of individual fragments in the images (Norbert et al., 1996). One of the most important technical principles of WipFrag is that it can use geometric probability to turn two-dimensional (2D) images into 2D PSDs (WipWare Inc, 2025). In this reconstruction, the measured 2D distribution is broken down into 40 size classes or “bins.” Each bin is then converted from 2D to 3D, and the whole thing is then turned into a 3D frequency distribution and finally a cumulative weight percent distribution (WipWare Inc, 2025). WipFrag also solves the problem of “missing fines,” which are small particles that are hard to see, by using calibrations based on real-world data or by looking at several images at different scales (zoom-merge analysis) (WipWare Inc, 2025). Using WipFrag software, Figure 4 shows the size distribution of the muck pile particles.
Fragmentation analysis using Wipfrag Software (WipWare Inc, 2025).
WipFrag and other image-based fragmentation analysis systems are good alternatives to traditional sieve analysis methods. These methods are accurate, but they take a lot of time and effort to use on large rock piles (WipWare Inc, 2025). These digital methods make it possible to get and process data more quickly with little effect on ongoing production. They also provide a way to estimate PSD in the field that doesn't damage anything and doesn't cost a lot, which helps with continuous monitoring and improving operations. The software also has a “Blast Cast™” module that uses the PSD and sphericity data it creates to guess what will happen in future blasts (Amin and Salman, 2022).
Wip Frag's ability to quickly and accurately measure fragmentation is an important part of the “mine-to-mill” optimization chain (Doc, 2024). It makes it possible to directly link certain blast design parameters to the efficiency of downstream processing operations by giving accurate PSD data (Biessikirski et al., 2025). This helps mine operators adjust the blasting parameters to get the best feed to the crushers and mills. This leads to big drops in energy use and overall operating costs in the comminution circuit (Kumar, 2025). The technology goes beyond just breaking rock; it breaks it in the best way for the next steps in the value chain. This is a big step forward in blast optimization.
Data analysis methodologies
The data analysis methodologies were designed to provide a comprehensive, multi-dimensional comparison of ANFO and SME performance. The analysis integrated quantitative metrics and qualitative observations to build a holistic assessment.
The main part of the analysis was a close look at the KPIs, which included the PF, blast-induced GVs, fragmentation efficiency, and the explosives’ natural properties, such as density and VOD.
How to figure out the PF: PF is a measure of the amount of explosive required to fragment given volume of rock. The standard formula for finding the PF is: PF (m3/kg) = Volume of Rock Blasted (m3)/Explosive Charged (kg). Using a Total Station to do pre-blast and post-excavation bench-level surveys, it was possible to determine exactly how much rock was blasted. Fragmentation analysis: The D80 value, which shows the particle size below which 80% of the blasted material falls, was used to measure fragmentation efficiency. This value was obtained from drone-captured images analyzed using WipFrag image analysis software. Ground vibration assessment: Micromate and Minimate Plus seismographs were used to measure the PPV in mm/s to quantify GV caused by blasting. Regression analysis was applied to develop and compare predictive equations for both ANFO and SME. The United States Bureau of Mines (USBM) equation, expressing PPV as a function of Maximum Charge per Delay (MCD) and charge distance (D), was employed to establish these relationships. Explosive properties analysis: The density and in-hole VOD of both ANFO and SME explosives were measured at the site itself. Special VOD recorders were used to obtain VOD measurements, revealing energy release characteristics of ANFO and SME explosives. The effects of variability in design parameters: Careful observation recorded how changes in blast design parameters like burden, stemming length, and hole depth affected the performance of ANFO and SME, especially the quality of fragmentation and the level of GV.
This method of analyzing data from various perspectives, employing both quantitative and qualitative measures, made it possible to fully evaluate how well the explosives worked. This comprehensive strategy was essential to identify trade-offs and synergies among various performance dimensions. It went beyond just improving one metric to give a more complete picture of how to get long-lasting blasting results. This method makes sure that the results are a good starting point for making smart choices about mining operations.
Results and discussions
The comparative analysis of ANFO and SME explosives at the RG OCP-II open-cast coal mine revealed distinct performance profiles across critical indicators, emphasizing their respective advantages and trade-offs in the context of sustainable blasting. The study evaluated the PF, GVs generated by the blast, fragmentation efficiency, and the explosive's intrinsic properties.
A comparison of the powder factor
This study showed a big difference between ANFO and SME explosives in terms of the PF, which is an important measure of explosive efficiency and economic performance. ANFO had an average PF of 3.27 m3/kg, which means that it used explosive energy very well. On the other hand, SME had a higher average PF of 2.0 m3/kg. This big difference shows that ANFO is better at using explosives per unit volume of rock blasted.
The higher efficiency observed with ANFO directly translates into substantial economic benefits for mining operations, primarily through reduced expenditure on explosive materials. Beyond the immediate cost savings, this lower explosive consumption per unit of rock broken implies a reduced environmental footprint. This aligns directly with the principles of resource conservation and responsible consumption, which are central to SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production). The more efficient use of explosive energy by ANFO also contributes to better rock fragmentation and a reduced need for secondary blasting, which in turn lowers fuel consumption for rehandling and decreases equipment wear, further reinforcing its economic and environmental advantages. This efficiency is a key driver for promoting more sustainable mining operations by maximizing resource output while minimizing input and environmental disturbance. Figure 5 illustrates the month-wise PF (in m3 per kg) comparison for both ANFO and SME.
Month-wise powder factor (in m3/Kg) comparison between ANFO and SME (Imashev et al., 2024). ANFO: ammonium nitrate fuel oil; SME: site mixed emulsion.
Assessment of blast-induced ground vibrations
Blast-induced GVs, measured as PPV, are a critical environmental and safety concern in open-cast mining due to their potential to cause structural damage and community disturbance. In this study, recorded PPV values ranged from 0.519 to 7.602 mm/s, with 17 trial blasts successfully achieving vibrations below 0.5 mm/s.
A consistent pattern emerged from the data: ANFO-generated blasts consistently produced lower PPV values compared to blasts initiated with SME explosives (Hossaini et al., 2006). This outcome is significant as lower PPV values directly indicate enhanced protection for nearby structures and a reduced level of environmental disturbance. Maintaining PPV levels well within the stringent limits set by the DGMS in India is paramount for regulatory compliance and responsible environmental management. The consistently lower PPV values observed with ANFO are critical from a social and regulatory compliance perspective. Minimizing GVs reduces the risk of structural damage, alleviates community annoyance and complaints, and strengthens the mine's social license to operate. This directly contributes to the social dimension of sustainable mining practices.
Regression analysis was performed to develop predictor equations for both ANFO and SME, illustrating the relationship between PPV, MCD, and distance (D) as per the USBM equation. Figures 6, 7, and 8 visually represent these regression curves and predicted PPV values under different charge per delay scenarios, further substantiating ANFO's advantage in vibration control.
Regression curves for both ANFO and SME. ANFO: ammonium nitrate fuel oil; SME: site mixed emulsion.
SME predicted PPV with different charge per delay. SME: site mixed emulsion; PPV; peak particle velocity.
ANFO predicted PPV with different charge per delay. ANFO: ammonium nitrate fuel oil; PPV: peak particle velocity.
Evaluation of fragmentation efficiency
Fragmentation quality is a pivotal factor influencing the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of downstream mining processes, including loading, hauling, crushing, and milling. The study utilized drone-based image capture and WipFrag software to analyze PSD, primarily focusing on the D80 value (the particle size below which 80% of the material falls).
The results demonstrated ANFO's superior fragmentation performance, yielding an average D80 of 230 mm, which is significantly finer than SME's average D80 of 280 mm. This superior fragmentation achieved with ANFO translates directly into several operational benefits: A reduced need for secondary blasting, which is a costly and time-consuming process; and improved efficiency in loading and hauling operations, as smaller, more uniform fragments are easier to handle.
The superior fragmentation performance of ANFO is primarily attributed to its uniform energy release and more effective gas expansion characteristics, particularly in the dry geological conditions prevalent at the study site. In contrast, SME, while offering advantages in wet conditions, exhibited uneven fragmentation in some instances, which was linked to its higher density and VOD characteristics in a dry environment.
Furthermore, ANFO blasts resulted in a 3.84% increase in material passing through the 500 mm sieve compared to SME. This indicates a higher proportion of finer material that is immediately ready for processing, reducing the energy demands in subsequent comminution stages. Effective fragmentation directly contributes to sustainable mining by enhancing excavation efficiency and reducing the energy required for downstream processes. Figure 9 visually presents the month-wise comparison of D80 particle sizes for both explosives, and Figure 10 highlights the average improvement in material passing the 500 mm sieve with ANFO.
Comparison of the D80 particle sizes for both ANFO and SME. ANFO: ammonium nitrate fuel oil; SME; site mixed emulsion.
Improvement in the average percentage passing from 500 mm sieve size.
WipFrag's ability to rapidly and accurately quantify fragmentation is a critical link in the “mine-to-mill” optimization chain (Doc, 2024). By providing precise PSD data, it enables a direct correlation between specific blast design parameters and downstream processing efficiency (Biessikirski et al., 2025). This allows mines to fine-tune blasting for optimal feed to crushers and mills, thereby contributing to significant reductions in energy consumption and overall operating costs in the comminution circuit (Kumar, 2025). This moves beyond simply breaking rock to breaking it optimally for the subsequent stages of the value chain.
Analysis of explosive properties: Density and velocity of detonation
The intrinsic properties of explosives, especially their density and VOD, are very important in figuring out how well they work and whether they are right for certain geological conditions.
Density: This study found that ANFO had a lower average density of 0.8 g/cc than SME's 1.2 g/cc. ANFO's lower density makes it easier for the charge to spread evenly throughout the borehole, which in turn makes sure that the energy spreads evenly throughout the rock mass. This effective energy distribution is a major reason why fragmentation is better and waste is less, which benefits both materials and the environment.
Velocity of detonation: Table 2 shows that SME's in-hole VOD was usually higher, between 5341 and 5392 m/s. ANFO's VOD was between 3762 and 4013 m/s. A higher VOD in SME can help energy move better, especially when the conditions are wet or the space is tight. But in dry conditions, it can cause the rock to break too much and the ground to shake more. This means that SME is better for some tough situations where its water resistance and higher energy density are important, but ANFO is better for dry geological settings because it has a more balanced performance and better control. The most appropriate kind of explosive to use depends a lot on the circumstances and the geology. ANFO works well in dry, stable conditions, but it doesn't work well in wet or unstable conditions. This is why SME is a necessary alternative, even though it might cost more. This shows that choosing the best explosives is a dynamic process that needs a deep understanding of both the explosives’ properties and the geological and environmental conditions at the site. The VOD measurement is an important quality control measure for explosives because it makes sure they work as planned in the field (Strayos, 2025).
Explosive properties and in-the-hole VOD.
ANFO: ammonium nitrate fuel oil; SME: site mixed emulsion; VOD: velocity of detonation.
Impact of blast design parameter variability on performance
The study also looked into how changes in significant blast design parameters impact the performance of both ANFO and SME explosives. This gave useful information for improving blast results. These observations are summarized in Table 3.
Observations of ANFO and SME for different blast design parameters.
ANFO: ammonium nitrate fuel oil; SME: site mixed emulsion.
For ANFO, making the burden bigger (the space between the blast holes and the free face) usually made the fragmentation better and the GVs more stable. This means that ANFO works well with the right amount of burden because it has a lower density and VOD, which makes it easier to break rocks and spread energy. Using ANFO to shorten the stemming length (the inert material at the top of the blast hole) made the energy release better, but it also made the risk of flyrock a little higher. When using deeper holes, ANFO worked just as well, showing that it can work with different charge lengths.
On the other hand, SME's performance was more affected by changes in design parameters. As the burden increased, SME's fragmentation became less predictable. This means that its higher energy and VOD might need more careful burden control to avoid uneven breakage. When SME was used to reduce stemming, it caused more GVs and worse fragmentation. This shows that proper stemming is important for this type of explosive to keep energy in check. SME made deeper holes, which made the confinement stronger and the vibration problems worse. This shows that careful design changes are needed to handle the higher energy release.
These observations emphasize that optimal explosive performance is contingent not only on the explosive type but also on the precise blast design parameters and geological conditions. A “one-size-fits-all” approach to blast design doesn't work; instead, each explosive and site condition needs a customized, data-driven approach to get the most out of it and have the least impact on the environment (Fernández et al., 2022; Mehrdanesh et al., 2017; Saldana et al., 2024; Trevor, 2012; Trevor and Blair, 2011).
Environmental and operational implications
The comparative analysis of ANFO and SME explosives reveals significant environmental and operational implications for open-cast coal mining, particularly within the framework of sustainable practices.
From an environmental standpoint, the use of ANFO consistently resulted in a lower environmental impact. This is primarily attributed to its superior PF, which means less explosive material is consumed per unit of rock broken. Reduced explosive usage directly translates to fewer raw materials consumed and potentially lower emissions from explosive decomposition. Furthermore, ANFO-generated blasts consistently exhibited minimized GVs (lower PPV values). This reduction in vibration levels is crucial for mitigating potential damage to nearby structures, minimizing disturbance to local ecosystems, and reducing community complaints, thereby enhancing the mine's environmental stewardship and social license to operate.
From an operational perspective, ANFO's higher PF and superior fragmentation efficiency (lower D80) offer substantial economic benefits. The need for less explosive material directly reduces operational costs. Improved fragmentation leads to more efficient loading and hauling operations, reducing cycle times, fuel consumption, and wear and tear on heavy machinery. This also significantly reduces the need for costly and time-consuming secondary blasting.
While ANFO demonstrates clear advantages in dry geological conditions, the study acknowledges its limitations, particularly in wet boreholes, fire-prone zones, or unstable ground conditions (e.g. caved goafs). In such challenging environments, SME explosives may provide safer and more sustainable alternatives due to their superior water resistance and higher energy density. However, the use of SME in these conditions often comes with increased operational and environmental trade-offs, such as potentially higher costs and the need for more stringent vibration control measures.
The overall findings indicate that investments in optimized blast design and, when necessary, higher-quality explosives, can generate substantial savings across the entire mining value chain, from reduced fuel consumption and equipment wear to increased processing throughput and minimized secondary blasting. This emphasizes a strategic, long-term view of operational efficiency rather than short-term cost cutting in the blasting phase alone (Mining, n.d.). Therefore, the choice of explosive must be a carefully considered decision, balancing performance, cost, and environmental impact based on specific site conditions, to achieve truly sustainable mining practices.
Alignment with SDGs
The results of this comparative study show that optimized blasting practices, especially when using ANFO in the right conditions, are in line with several United Nations SDGs. This shows how the mining industry could help with global sustainability goals.
SDG 12 (responsible consumption and production): The study's findings indicate that ANFO attains a markedly superior PF in comparison to SME. This means that less explosive material is needed to break each rock, which means that explosive energy is used more efficiently. This kind of efficiency directly helps people use resources responsibly and makes less waste, which is exactly what SDG 12 wants.
SDG 13 (climate action): Better blasting methods, especially those that make ANFO break up better, cut down on the need for secondary blasting and make loading, hauling, and processing operations more efficient. This means that heavy machinery will use less fuel and materials will need to be moved less often, which will lower greenhouse gas emissions. These cuts in carbon footprint help SDG 13 reach its bigger goals.
SDG 15 (life on land): The consistently lower PPV values seen in blasts made with ANFO are very important for reducing environmental damage. Less GVs lower the chance of negative effects on nearby ecosystems, such as plants and animals, and help keep the surface stable. These results directly support the goals of SDG 15, which is about protecting, restoring, and encouraging the sustainable use of land-based ecosystems. The study's focus on using advanced digital tools like drones, AI-based fragmentation analysis, and vibration monitoring technologies goes beyond these direct alignments. It also supports a bigger shift toward smarter, safer, and more sustainable mining operations. By supporting the main ideas of sustainable development in many ways, this technological integration improves compliance, lowers environmental risks, and makes operations more efficient overall (Blasting, n.d.). Engagement with SDGs has transitioned from a mere corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiative to a strategic necessity for mining companies (Columbia Center on Sustainable Investment et al., n.d.). Companies that seriously commit to and include the SDGs in their business plans can get a lot of benefits, such as better relationships with governments and local communities, easier access to financial resources, and more long-term operational resilience (Rezaeineshat et al., 2020).
The function of digital instruments in the shift from “art” to “science”
One of the main goals of this study was to go beyond the traditional “experience-based” way of assessing blasts, which is often thought of as a “art,” and use a scientific method that can be measured and is based on data. The use of modern digital tools made this change easier.
Face and muck pile objective characterization: This study utilized drone photogrammetry to perform high-resolution pre- and post-blast surveys. This took the place of old-fashioned visual estimates that were often wrong. The surveys created 3D point clouds that acted as a “digital twin” of the blast site. This made it possible to accurately and objectively figure out the volume of the in-situ rock, the volume of the muck pile after the blast, and the swell factor.
Quantitative fragmentation analysis: After that, the photogrammetric models were processed with Wip Frag software. This AI-powered software automatically and objectively looked at the size distribution of the muck pile's fragmentation (e.g. D80, D50, etc.). This quantitative metric is necessary for a data-driven approach because it goes beyond the “art” of visually “guessing” the quality of the fragmentation.
The data from seismographs was statistically linked to the blast design parameters, which led to the creation of the predictor equation for PPV. This equation is used to keep the PPV below the threshold values set by DGMS. Based on data, this data-driven approach is changing blasting from an art to a science.
The scientific method is all about “design-monitor-quantify-refine.” It gets rid of the guesswork that comes with only using experience and lets you really optimize blast performance based on real data.
Conclusions
This extensive study offered a thorough comparative examination of ANFO and SME explosives for sustainable blasting in an open-cast coal mine. The research utilized advanced digital technologies to assess critical performance indicators, revealing that under the existing dry geological conditions, ANFO exhibited considerable and measurable advantages over SME. The results clearly show that ANFO performs better on several important metrics. First, ANFO had a better PF (3.27 m3/kg vs. SME's 2.00 m3/kg) which meant that it needed less explosive material to break up the same amount of rock. This efficiency leads to big savings in money and a smaller use of resources.
Second, blasts that used ANFO always made the ground shake less, as measured by PPV. This is a very important benefit because it lowers the risk of damage to nearby buildings and infrastructure, reduces environmental disruption, and makes sure that the DGMS rules are followed (DGMS circular no.7 of 1997).
Thirdly, ANFO broke things up better than other explosives. It had a smaller average fragment size (D80 of 230 mm compared to SME's 280 mm), which makes loading and hauling operations more efficient and cuts down on the need for expensive secondary blasting. These benefits are due to the fact that ANFO is the best explosive for dry conditions. Its lower density allows for more even energy distribution, and its lower VOD seems to give it a better balance of rock-breaking power and control, avoiding the strong GVs that can happen with explosives with higher VOD in this type of geology. This study confirmed that the integration of digital tools is pivotal in transitioning blasting from an empirical art to a data-driven science. As demonstrated in the discussion section, the use of drone photogrammetry provided precise, quantifiable data on blast volumes and face profiles, while AI-powered analysis software that is Wip Frag yielded objective fragmentation metrics. This quantitative feedback, supplemented by advanced monitoring equipment to control Blast induced GVs, creates a robust feedback loop. This process allows for an iterative, scientific approach to blast optimization, where future design changes can be directly correlated with measured outcomes rather than subjective assessment.
The results of this study have important effects on how mining can be done in a more environmentally friendly way. The most important thing to remember is that explosive selection should depend on the situation. The study shows that no one explosive is better than all the others. ANFO worked well in the dry conditions of this mine, but SME is still a good choice for tough situations like wet boreholes or areas that are prone to fires. Operations need to use a more complex strategy that matches the explosive properties to the conditions at each site.
Also, for blasting to be sustainable, performance optimization needs to take into account both economic and environmental benefits, which are closely related. ANFO's better PF had a chain reaction of benefits, such as better fragmentation and lower vibrations. This shows that optimizing for resource efficiency can improve both environmental outcomes and operational profitability at the same time. This synergy strengthens the business case for going green. The use of advanced digital technologies is a key part of this process because it lets you make decisions based on data that improve safety, make sure rules are followed, and make things better all the time. This study offers significant insights; however, its conclusions are predicated on the unique dry geological conditions of a singular mine. The main problem is that the results only apply to one site, and the performance of ANFO and SME could be very different in different rock masses, moisture levels, or geological complexities.
Consequently, subsequent research must concentrate on several critical domains. First, comparative analyses should encompass a broader spectrum of geological contexts to establish a more universally applicable framework for explosive selection. Long-term environmental monitoring should also be part of future studies to look at cumulative effects like how dust spreads and the quality of groundwater. A more detailed and measurable cost–benefit analysis would make the economic case for optimized blasting even stronger. Lastly, promising areas of research include improving explosive formulations (for example, making ANFO more resistant to water), creating more advanced AI-based predictive models, and doing a thorough comparison of toxic fume emissions to make a full environmental and occupational health profile for each type of explosive. In conclusion, this study shows with real-world data that a blasting method focused on sustainability can produce better results. Mining companies can improve efficiency, lower costs, and lessen their impact on the environment by carefully choosing explosives like ANFO for the right conditions. For the future, it will be important to keep researching and adding digital tools to make blasting solutions that are adaptable, responsible, and cost-effective.
Footnotes
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Mine management for their substantial assistance with data gathering and permission for field visits.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.