Abstract
In the context of the internationalisation of UK higher education, there has been a significant increase in the establishment of collaborative degree programmes between UK-based universities and overseas institutions, with partnerships in China emerging as particularly prominent. This paper employs a critically reflective approach to examine the experiences of “flying faculty” academics who temporarily teach abroad, drawing on self-reflection, student feedback, and colleagues’ insights. Using the authors’ delivery of the MSc Public Health modules in Hainan, China as a case study, the paper explores both the opportunities and complexities inherent in transnational education. From a public health perspective, such international engagements raise important questions about the adaptability of pedagogical practices, cultural competence and equitable access to quality education. A significant emphasis is placed on adapting public health pedagogy to unfamiliar and potentially sensitive socio-political and cultural contexts, such as those encountered in transnational education (TNE) settings in China, where topics such as health equity, governance and systems critique must be navigated with careful consideration of local norms and regulatory frameworks. Navigating these sensitivities is further complicated by academic freedom limitations, differing institutional expectations and the need for culturally appropriate approaches to experiential learning. We highlight potential strategies to mitigate these barriers, such as collaborative approach and greater institutional support mechanisms. Ultimately, faculty with direct experience in international teaching contexts are well positioned to contribute meaningfully to the globalisation of higher education curricula, fostering culturally responsive and inclusive teaching practices that resonate with global public health education priorities.
Introduction
The landscape of education partnerships between the United Kingdom (UK) and China continues to undergo significant transformations (Huang, 2023). One of the key developments in these areas is the expansion of transnational education (TNE) initiatives, especially in Hainan province, China, which reflects China’s broader strategy to attract global academic partnerships and position itself as an emerging hub for international collaboration in higher education (Yang, 2023). One collaboration in transnational education within Hainan is the establishment of a Joint Education Institution (University of the West of England [UWE] College of Hainan Medical University) between UWE Bristol and Hainan Medical University in 2022, which offers jointly delivered degree programmes. As part of this partnership, UWE delivers its MSc Public Health programme through a “flying faculty” model, where lecturers travel to Hainan for short block-teaching periods while overseeing curriculum design and assessments remotely. From the UK university’s perspective, this approach offers practical advantages, particularly in the efficient deployment of its teaching staff.
Our paper employs a critically reflective approach to interrogate the opportunities and challenges associated with flying faculty roles, drawing on multiple perspectives including our self-reflection, student feedback and insights from colleagues. Our analysis is grounded in our own experiences of delivering the MSc Public Health programme in China, offering a nuanced examination of transnational teaching practices. In addition, our case study should be considered within the context of the UK higher education institution and the landscape of TNE in China.
Transnational Education (TNE) in China
Since 1990s, China has actively promoted TNE through state policies that encourage partnerships between Chinese and foreign higher education institutions. TNE has expanded significantly in China, with over half a million students currently enrolled in joint programmes and more than 1.5 million graduates to date (International Higher Education Commission, 2023). This growth is further reflected in the presence of more than 1,000 active joint programmes and institutes at the undergraduate level and beyond (Eley, 2022). As a result, China has become the largest host country for UK TNE programmes (Eley, 2022). While these figures underscore the growing demand for internationalised higher education in China, they also raise critical questions about the depth and quality of these partnerships. One of the most prominent regulatory frameworks shaping these partnerships is the four one-thirds policy, which mandates that international partners contribute no less than one-third of teaching and education resources, spanning teaching staff, curriculum development, administration, resource and quality assurance (Ministry of Education, 2006).
TNE encompasses a diverse range of models and varies significantly in scale. For example, students may complete their entire programme in China or spend part of their studies in the UK. Learning can take place through online distance education or traditional face-to-face instruction. TNE allows students to obtain globally recognised degrees without the significant financial burden of studying abroad. Additionally, TNE campuses often provide education at a lower cost compared to their parent institutions in the UK. By highlighting these financial benefits, offshore campuses can attract a wider range of students, both domestically and from other regions in Asia, who seek an affordable UK-style higher education. Table 1 shows the main stakeholders in TNE.
Four Main Stakeholders in TNE.
Review of the Literature of Chinese Learners in TNE
Although TNE has grown substantially in recent decades, particularly in Sino–foreign university partnerships, the teaching and learning dynamics in these contexts remain empirically under-explored (Lai, 2024; Lai & Jung, 2025b). For example, scholarship on the Chinese learner has long questioned simplistic characterisations of Chinese students as passive, rote-oriented and uncritical (Dai et al., 2023; X. Li et al., 2024). Biggs and colleagues argue that what appears externally as memorisation may in fact be a deep-learning strategy mediated by cultural, linguistic and situational factors (Watkins & Biggs, 1996, 2001). In parallel, Janette Ryan’s work on intercultural teaching and learning in higher education emphasises that international students should be viewed as assets rather than problems, and that their prior schooling, medium of instruction, assessment regimes and institutional culture all shape engagement (Ryan, 2011, 2019). Similarly, John Flowerdew’s extensive work on English-medium instruction and academic discourse in transnational contexts highlights how linguistic hierarchies, classroom power relations, and differing rhetorical traditions shape interaction between Western lecturers and Chinese students, underscoring the need for critical language awareness and culturally sensitive pedagogy in TNE environments (Flowerdew, 2008; Flowerdew & Wang, 2015). Therefore, teachers must understand their students’ classroom behaviours contextually rather than attributing them to fixed national cultural traits (Thijs et al., 2025). For example, a recent qualitative study of a Sino-Anglo cooperation university by Chen and Wei reported that Chinese students do display some of the attributes often described in east-Asian learner literature, but expatriate teachers’ reflective praxis highlighted some effective pedagogical strategies for better engaging these students rather than simply diagnosing “deficits” (Chen & Wei, 2023). In relation to English-medium instruction, both teacher beliefs and institutional design can inadvertently reproduce deficit assumptions about Chinese students (e.g., “they won’t speak up and participate in classrooms because of culture”), rather than examining the interplay of language confidence, pedagogy, task design and relational trust (D. Liu et al., 2023).
Although this literature can be applied to the TNE context in China, a closer scrutiny of these studies reveals some pedagogical and intercultural faultlines (Dai et al., 2024; Yu, 2021, 2023; Zhang & Dai, 2025). In the Sino-foreign collaborative programmes, some studies reported that students experience a mix of teacher-centred local pedagogy and more student-centred foreign teaching; the “flying faculty” model, in which visiting staff deliver teaching for limited blocks, adds complexity to continuity, relational trust and cultural adaptation (Bambacas & Sanderson, 2011; C. Liu et al., 2022; D. Liu et al., 2023). A study of Chinese students in TNE programmes reported a fragmented learning environment with dual-teacher systems: domestic Chinese teachers favouring lecture-based approaches, visiting foreign staff favouring interaction and discussion, and students generally preferring the latter but also requiring scaffolding to adapt (D. Liu et al., 2023). These study findings underscore the need for contextualised pedagogy (i.e., tuning curriculum, teaching, assessment, language and support structures to the local learner profile and mobility dynamics) rather than assuming imported Western pedagogies will seamlessly transfer.
Cross-Cultural Adaptations and Paedagogical Challenges
Teaching in Hainan is conducted entirely in English, with UWE deploying its UK-based staff to deliver in-person lectures, enabling students in China to directly engage with UK staff. However, delivering the curriculum to Chinese students necessitated substantial adjustments in teaching approaches, particularly to address cultural and linguistic barriers. For example, the inaugural cohort of 14 Chinese students reflected a diverse mix of professional and educational backgrounds, including those working in healthcare, pharmaceuticals, and recent graduates. Our reflections revealed some key areas requiring adaptation, underscoring the challenges of aligning pedagogical practices with the unique needs of the student cohort. Table 2 show some of our challenges and pedagogical adaptations in delivering learning within MSc Public Health programme as the flying faculty.
Challenges and Pedagogical Adaptations in Delivering Learning Within MSc Public Health Programme by Flying Faculty.
We identified notable differences in student engagement and learning preferences, particularly the tendency of Chinese students towards more passive learning approaches. Therefore, we initially assumed that learners might be hesitant to engage with our more interactive, Western-style approach, which encourages questioning and critical discussion. This highlighted the need to adapt interactive teaching methods, such as group discussions and problem-based learning, to better align with students’ educational backgrounds and expectations. While it took some time for students to feel comfortable, once rapport was established, they actively participated in group discussions and shared feedback with the class. This was supported by the presence of local teaching staff and assistants, who helped model the expected behaviours and created a supportive environment for students. The positive effects of pairing local staff and flying faculty was also noted by J. Wang (2025) who reported these interventions enabled learners to adapt to the cultural shift in learning style and contributed to increased academic engagement and success. This is because Chinese education and learning traditions have been shaped by Confucianism for centuries (Liang & Matthews, 2023). A deep-rooted respect for wisdom, knowledge and the expertise of teachers has fostered a hierarchical learning environment in which students are socialised to defer to authority and refrain from challenging those in power (Cai, 2023; Chan, 1999). Within this framework, teaching is predominantly content-driven: teachers are responsible for delivering knowledge, while students are expected to passively absorb it. This dynamic reinforces a learning culture in which teachers dictate and learners comply (Cai, 2023).
Tigert and Fotouhi (2022) discuss the limitations of standardised English proficiency assessments such as IELTS, arguing that these tests offer limited predictive value regarding students’ ability to navigate the linguistic demands of higher education. They state that mastering English is not solely a linguistic endeavour but also a sociocultural one, requiring learners to grasp discipline-specific vocabulary, academic text structures, and communicative conventions. This complexity was also evident in the taught content, for example in one session, we looked at developing a search strategy and the example used the keyword “children” and explored how to apply synonyms, Boolean operators, and truncation to improve search results. While the technical aspects of building the strategy were accessible, many learners found it difficult to identify academically appropriate synonyms. For example, terms such as “juveniles,” or “minors” were not easily suggested, and some learners offered alternatives that were less suitable for academic databases for example, “kids.” This highlighted a key challenge where although they had the required English proficiency, selecting precise and discipline-appropriate vocabulary for research tasks remained difficult.
Since our Chinese students were non-native English speakers, yet all met the required proficiency threshold for course enrolment (i.e., a minimum English proficiency score of 6.5 for the International English Language Testing System (IELTS 6.5) with no component < 6.0. Consequently, their reading and comprehension skills were generally strong. However, the most pronounced impact of language was observed in spoken communication. While many students were articulate, a noticeable lack of confidence often inhibited their verbal participation in our classroom. Branch (2019) identifies language barriers as one of the most frequently cited challenges in TNE programmes. A lack of confidence, they argue, can manifest as classroom silence, reduced engagement, or a tendency to revert to the native language during group work. In a study by J. Wang (2025), TNE learners reported anxiety around speaking in class or engaging in discussion-based activities, particularly in contexts where taught content was English, but the surrounding environment remained monolingual, which was the experience of the learners in Hainan. This observation resonates with our experience: we noted that a small subset of learners (those more confident in their spoken English ability) frequently assumed the role of group spokesperson, with others relying heavily on them to communicate shared ideas.
Moreover, socio-cultural attitudes such as an emphasis on authority further encourage conformity and passive engagement in the classroom (Le, 2024). These tendencies are linked to China’s high-context, collectivist culture, where maintaining harmony is prioritised over direct confrontation (Yuan et al., 2024). In such contexts, individuals often rely on indirect communication, understatements, and strategic silence to avoid offending others. These cultural norms extend into educational settings, shaping student behaviour and learning approaches, which contrast with more interactive and debate-driven pedagogical models commonly found in Western institutions (H. Li et al., 2024). Table 3 show the flying faculty observations of some key pedagogical differences between Chinese and UK higher education systems in the context of MSc Public Health programme.
Our Flying Faculty Observations of Some Key Pedagogical Differences Between Chinese and UK Higher Education Systems.
In addition, the concept of mianzi (face), which signifies maintaining status and respect in social interactions, plays a significant role in Chinese culture (Ilin et al., 2024). It has been suggested that a traditional aversion to making mistakes stems from a fear of losing face. Therefore, we actively encouraged students to voice their opinions, challenge ideas and engage in critical discussions without apprehension about being wrong. Our pedagogical approach sought to foster an active learning environment where questioning and critique are valued over the fear of losing face.
Another observation, which also draws comparisons to the experiences of our international students on the home programme at UWE, concerns listening comprehension in the context of a diverse teaching team. Our TNE programme staff comprises lecturers with a wide range of accents, including regional English dialects and international differences shaped by a variety of first language and residence outside the UK. English, as a spoken language, is often characterised by rapid speech and informal syntax, which may deviate from standard grammatical structures (Carter & Mncarthy, 1995). These features can pose additional challenges for learners, particularly in real-time classroom interactions. Therefore, in addition to academic language requirements, students must develop the flexibility to interpret informal and localised variations of English. Each member of our team brings a unique accent, speech pattern, and level of formality, which adds another layer of complexity for learners attempting to follow spoken instruction. Although not exclusive to TNE context, Vasquez Diaz and Iqbal (2024) surveyed international students in the UK and found that 42% (n = 33) identified native-accented speech as the most significant barrier to listening comprehension. Fast speech rate was the second most cited factor, selected by 36% of participants. These findings underscore the complexity of spoken English as experienced by learners in diverse educational settings. In our own classroom observations, this challenge was also evident. One adaptive strategy we observed in the classroom was the use of speech-to-text software by several students. While we cannot verify the accuracy of these tools in capturing spoken content, they may offer a valuable scaffold for learners in comprehending diverse speech styles.
Navigating Sensitivity in the TNE Classroom
We acknowledged political sensitivity as a key factor in lesson delivery but positioned it as just one of many variables shaping Chinese classroom dynamics. This phenomenon is contrasting with Western classrooms, where such constraints are generally less pronounced (Newland, 2024; Ouyang et al., 2024; Shi et al., 2021). For example, when it came to discussions on global health perspectives, some students appeared hesitant to engage in open critique, particularly on politically or socially sensitive topics. Rather than interpreting this behaviour as passivity, we came to view it as a form of strategic agency. Learners in transnational education settings often negotiate between differing academic expectations while maintaining cultural integrity (J. Wang, 2025). This interpretation aligns with the principles of culturally sustaining pedagogy, which emphasises the preservation of cultural identity alongside the development of critical academic skills (Paris & Alim, 2017).
One approach we used to navigate this sensitivity was to rely on student input and the support of Chinese staff to identify sensitive topics and determine appropriate ways to discuss them. Particular emphasis was placed on critically reflecting on the use of role-play and group discussion as a pedagogical tool for addressing sensitive issues, especially in the context of public health topics such as leadership, sexual health and mental health. We had to strike a careful balance between delivering essential content and respecting cultural norms in China, ensuring that discussions remained both impactful and appropriate.
Some of us employed role play, which involved reframing real-world content into fictional scenarios with constructed dilemmas, theoretically fostering deeper analytical engagement. By requiring students to critically engage with content rather than passively memorise it, this method aimed to facilitate more nuanced discussions (Brown, 2025). However, while role-play appeared to offer greater expressive freedom in some cases, it was far from a universal solution. Yet, given the fluid and opaque nature of political sensitivity, pinpointing consistent patterns of effectiveness would be highly challenging and of limited applicability beyond a specific time period. Just as determining what is considered sensitive is a continuous process, so too is refining role-play and group discussion as a protective strategy, which ultimately depends on ongoing trial and error.
Another most obvious change was removing UK-specific examples and replacing them with local or globally relevant ones. However, we also made deliberate adaptations to avoid certain politically or culturally sensitive topics. Pringle and Woodman (2022) highlighted the tension in Chinese higher education between international norms of academic freedom and domestic political constraints, noting that course content, resources and reading lists may be modified or pre-approved to avoid sensitive political or other issues. Some content required careful adjustment. For example, using acceptable maps and terminology for countries and territories. Despite these considerations, we found that students were open to engaging with a wide range of topics, including those that might be seen as controversial. This was a positive experience and allowed for deeper exploration and meaningful discussion.
Successes and Positive Outcomes
Since we have taught and delivered the public health programme in the home university (i.e., UWE), we are able to bring our experience and UK teaching expertise in teaching materials, methods, evaluation and teacher management into the public health programme in Hainan, which helped to increase and support the level of Chinese academic staff. Following the student feedback, the adoption of the UK teaching style including UK-style assessment methods and support was mentioned as one of the best practices. For example, UK marking schemes rely on explicit grading criteria, requiring markers to justify their decisions through detailed comments and provide constructive feedback to students. In addition, the assessment moderation helps to prevent disruptions in the assessment process and ensure that its academic standards are upheld (Bloxham et al., 2011).
Our active engagement in China provided critical exposure to the country’s pressing public health challenges including pollution, rural-urban health disparities, and the rise of non-communicable diseases. This experience not only broadened our global perspective but also underscored the complexities of addressing health inequities within diverse socio-political contexts. Also, teaching in an international setting demanded adaptability, prompting us to refine our pedagogical approaches and develop greater flexibility in curriculum delivery. Exposure to a different educational environment encouraged innovative teaching strategies, yet the sustainability and transferability of these adaptations beyond the Chinese context warrant further scrutiny (Y. Wang & Wu, 2023).
Our diverse TNE teaching team, comprising UK-based flying faculty of White British, South Asian, Chinese, and Black African backgrounds, alongside partner academics from different regions of China, provided a genuinely intercultural foundation for collaboration. This diversity, coupled with collaborative assessment design and a strong emphasis on belonging to the same partnership college, reflected features of culturally engaging learning environments (Hurtado, 2007; Museus et al., 2018). In addition, drawing on diverse pedagogical experience within such contexts, our team was aware to these dynamics and sought to make the learning environment more interactive and student-centred. Strategies included encouraging open discussion, using small group tasks, integrating local public health case studies, and providing positive reinforcement to build students’ confidence. Although initially challenging, these methods gradually enabled students to share their views more freely and engage in critical dialogue. Guided by Schön’s and Gibbs’s reflective models, this process informed ongoing pedagogical adaptations through constructive alignment, promoting a more inclusive, culturally responsive learning environment consistent with Ryan’s intercultural engagement model (Biggs, 1996; Gibbs, 1988; Ryan, 2012). This emphasis on inclusivity aligns with the works of Hurtado (2007) and Museus et al. (2018) who have reported that inclusive climates and faculty representation are crucial for equitable student outcomes. Reflecting this principle in practice, our programme demonstrated that such diversity modelled intercultural collaboration in practice and fostered a learning environment where difference was normalised and valued as a pedagogical strength. Collectively, these experiences point to several implications for pedagogy in transnational health promotion. Culturally responsive teaching involves more than bridging differences; it requires intentionally designing relational spaces that value linguistic and epistemic diversity. Maintaining continuity of presence and dialogue, even across geographical distances, is essential to sustaining motivation and trust.
Challenges and Lessons Learned
One of the challenges was that we had to deliver intensive courses within a short period of time (e.g., each course was expected to be completed within 3 days). As a result, we found that the intensive teaching style limited the time available for meaningful interactions with both students and Chinese faculty. Additionally, this approach restricted students’ ability to explore topics in greater depth or expand their learning beyond the core material. Therefore, the flying faculty model might be less able to create a positive learning experience for students as our time spent in China was limited. However, with the use of digital technology and communication, we were able to increase real-time interaction with students. This approach allowed us to provide continuous guidance and support to students even while we were in the UK, helping to mitigate the challenges posed by our limited time in China. Consequently, these methods could serve as a valuable supplement to face-to-face teaching, enhancing the overall learning experience.
English proficiency has been reported as another challenge. We often found that key concepts and ideas were sometimes lost in translation, creating barriers to effective learning. Certain concepts may be interpreted differently, resulting in substantial shifts in meaning and making the translated version appear almost like a separate language in itself (van Nes et al., 2010). To address this challenge, universities must invest in English language capacity building and offer additional language support for students who require it (McKinley et al., 2021). Strengthening students’ language skills is crucial to ensure the overall success and accessibility of the programme (Lai & Jung, 2025a). This also highlights a critical consideration for TNE. While a baseline level of English proficiency is necessary for enrolment, it does not fully equip students for the breadth of academic and interpersonal communication required. Our programme’s intensity and pace leave little room for students to adjust to varied speech styles, discipline-specific vocabulary, and informal classroom exchanges. Therefore, the teaching team must reflect on our own communicative practices, particularly verbal. Accents are part of our identity and cannot/should not be changed, however we can moderate the speed, structure, and formality of our speech to support comprehension. Whilst language proficiency is a necessity for TNEs the accessibility of verbal communication should not be a passive expectation of learners and should instead be an active responsibility of educators.
Reflection and Recommendations
One of our recommendations for best practices was that regular communication between UK and Chinese university staff should be maintained, with virtual meetings (e.g., Teams meetings) playing a crucial role, as email communication alone was often insufficient for clarity and effectiveness. Additionally, we emphasised the importance of building strong relationships with their Chinese counterparts. This not only facilitated collaboration but also demonstrated the UK university’s commitment to genuine two-way internationalisation, rather than merely attracting students in China.
It is possible that the flying faculty approach is less favoured by students in China, as the gaps between teaching blocks often require a higher degree of independent learning than they are accustomed to (Szkornik, 2017). In addition, some parents in China, who expect a more traditional and continuous teaching schedule, may struggle to understand the model. This is despite the fact that students receive ongoing support from locally employed staff between intensive teaching periods. This approach highlighted a lack of sustained engagement between UK flying faculty and Chinese students, as well as limited opportunities to effectively integrate Western learning and teaching practices. The success of this approach in practice largely depends on the duration of staff visits to China and the frequency of their teaching blocks.
Also, it is recommended that UK flying faculty members recognise and adapt to the differences in learning culture, adjusting their teaching approaches to better support Chinese students (D. Liu et al., 2023). Our experience in China underscored that simply applying the Western pedagogical models may be ineffective, necessitating a more context-sensitive and responsive teaching strategy. On the other hand, the Chinese staff are encouraged to familiarise themselves with the UK academic culture facilitate effective collaboration and integration. For example, faculty development sessions include structured opportunities for collective reflection on culturally sustaining practices and equitable assessment. Pre-module orientation sessions will introduce students to the programme’s academic culture and encourage the use of translanguaging strategies to support inclusive communication from the outset (Canagarajah, 2012).
Overall, this TNE partnership has brought several benefits to both the UK and Chinese universities. For example, the exchange of international experience among teaching staff can enhance their understanding of the Chinese market and the complexities of operating within China. Additionally, strengthening the UK university’s presence in China can yield strategic advantages. Moreover, both universities have the opportunity to critically assess best practices from each other and evaluate their applicability within their own contexts.
Footnotes
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.