Despite needing this critical skill for college and career readiness, American adolescents are struggling to develop effective writing. In today’s schools and workplaces, much of that writing uses digital tools. Integrating technology in secondary schools can help improve adolescent writing within initiatives focused on the pedagogy of writing. These initiatives would provide teachers with technical support so they may focus on instruction. Professional development would emphasize how to leverage digital tools to deliver evidence-based writing instruction. Students gain most when provided systematic, explicit instruction in scientifically based strategies for writing and the writing process, as well as how to make effective use of digital tools as part of the writing process.
ApplebeeA. N. (2011). Issues in large-scale writing assessment. Journal of Writing Assessment, 3, 81-98.
2.
ApplebeeA. N.LangerJ. A. (2011). A snapshot of writing instruction in middle schools and high schools. The English Journal, 100, 14-27. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/23047875
3.
BazermanC. (2011). Writing, cognition, and affect from the perspectives of sociocultural and historical studies of writing. In BerningerV. W. (Ed.), Past, present and future contributions of cognitive writing research to cognitive psychology (pp. 89-104). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
4.
BazermanC.ApplebeeA. N.BerningerV. W.BrandtD.GrahamS.MatsudaP. K.. . .SchleppegrellM. (2017). Taking the long view on writing development. Research in the Teaching of English, 51, 351-360.
5.
BrandtD. (2015). The rise of writing: Redefining mass literacy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
6.
ChenR. (2010). Investigating models for preservice teachers’ use of technology to support student-centered learning. Computers & Education, 55, 32-42. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.11.015
7.
Cochran-SmithM. (1991). Word processing and writing in elementary classrooms: A critical review of related literature. Review of Educational Research, 61, 107-155. doi:10.3102/00346543061001107
8.
CollinsP.HwangJ. K.ZhengB.WarschauerM. (2013). Writing with laptops: A quasi-experimental study. Writing & Pedagogy, 5, 203-230. doi:10.1558/wap.v5i2.203
9.
CottenS. R.DavisonE. L.ShankD. B.WardB. W. (2014). Gradations of disappearing digital divides among racially diverse middle school students. Communication and Information Technologies Annual, 8, 25-54. doi:10.1108/S2050-206020140000008017
10.
DaiuteC. (1986). Physical and cognitive factors in revising: Insights from studies with computers. Research in the Teaching of English, 20, 141-159.
11.
De La PazS.GrahamS. (2002). Explicitly teaching strategies, skills, and knowledge: Writing instruction in middle school classrooms. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94, 687-698. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.94.4.687
12.
ErtmerP. A.Ottenbreit-LeftwichA. T. (2010). Teacher technology change: How knowledge, confidence, beliefs, and culture intersect. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 42, 255-284. doi:10.1080/15391523.2010.10782551
13.
FlowerL.HayesJ. R. (1981). A cognitive process theory of writing. College Composition and Communication, 32, 365-387. doi:10.2307/356600
14.
FoltzP. W.HidalgoP.Van MoereA. (May, 2014). Improving student writing through automated formative assessment: Practices and results. In International Association for Educational Assessment (IAEA)Conference, Singapore.
15.
GillespieA.GrahamS.KiuharaS.HebertM. (2014). High school teachers use of writing to support students’ learning: A national survey. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 27, 1043-1072. doi:10.1007/s11145-013-9494-8
16.
GoldbergA.RussellM. M.CookA. (2003). The effects of computers on student writing: A meta-analysis of studies from1992-2002. Journal of Technology, Learning and Assessment, 2(1). Available from http://www.jtla.org
17.
GrahamS.BruchJ.FitzgeraldJ.FriedrichL.FurgesonJ.GreeneK.WulsinC. (2016). Teaching secondary students to write effectively (NCEE 2017-4002). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Available from http://whatworks.ed.gov
18.
GrahamS.CapizziA.HarrisK. R.HebertM.MorphyP. (2014). Teaching writing to middle school students: A national survey. Reading & Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 27, 101-1042. doi:10.1007/s11145-013-9495-7
19.
GrahamS.GillespieA.McKeownD. (2013). Writing: Importance, development and instruction. Reading & Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 26, 1-15. doi:10.1007/s11145-012-9395-2
20.
GrahamS.HarrisK. R. (2013). Common core state standards, writing, and students with LD: Recommendations. Learning Disabilities: Research & Practice, 28, 28-37. doi:10.1111/ldrp.12004
21.
GrahamS.PerinD. (2007). A meta-analysis of writing instruction for adolescent students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 445-476. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.3.445
22.
GriffithD.DuffettA. M. (2018). Reading instruction in America’s schools. Report prepared for the Thomas B. Fordham Institute. Columbus, OH.
23.
GrimesD.WarschauerM. (2010). Utility in a fallible tool: A multi-site case study of automated writing evaluation. Journal of Technology, Language, and Assessment, 8, 1-43.
24.
HayesJ. R.BerningerV. W. (2014). Cognitive processes in writing: A framework. In ArfeB.DockrellJ.BerningerV. (Eds.), Writing development and instruction in children with hearing, speech, and language disorders. London, England: Oxford Scholarship Online. doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199827282.001.0001
25.
JessonR.McNaughtonS.RosedaleN.ZhuT.CockleV. (2018). A mixed-methods study to identify effective practices in the teaching of writing in a digital learning environment in low income schools. Computers & Education, 119, 14-30. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2
26.
KiuharaS. A.GrahamS.HawkenL. S. (2009). Teaching writing to high school students: A national survey. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 136-160. doi:10.1037/a0013097
27.
KoehlerM. J.MishraP. (2009). What is technological pedagogical content knowledge?Contemporary Issues in Technology & Teacher Education, 9, 60-70. doi:10.1177/002205741319300303
28.
KormosE. (2018). The unseen digital divide: Urban, suburban, and rural teacher use and perceptions of web-based classroom technologies. Computers in the Schools, 35, 19-31. doi:10.1080/07380569.2018.1429168
29.
KranzbergM. (1986). Technology and history: “Kranzberg’s laws.”Technology and Culture, 27, 544-560. doi:10.2307/3105385
30.
LappD.FisherD.FreyN. (2014). Writing is a job requirement: How can we prepare every student?Voices From the Middle, 21, 7-9.
31.
LawrenceJ. F.GallowayE. P.YimS.LinA. (2013). Learning to write in middle school? Insights into adolescent writers’ instructional experiences across content areas. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 57, 151-161. doi:10.1002/JAAL.219
32.
MacArthurC. A. (1999). Overcoming barriers to writing: Computer support for basic writing skills. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 15, 169-192. doi:10.1080/105735699278251
33.
MacArthurC. A. (2006). The effects of new technologies on writing and writing processes. In MacArthurC.GrahamS.FitzgeraldJ. (Eds.), Handbook of writing research (pp. 248-262). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
34.
MacArthurC. A. (2009). Reflections on research on writing and technology for struggling writers. Learning Disabilities: Research & Practice, 24, 93-103. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5826.2009.00283.x
35.
MadduxC. D.JohnsonD. L. (2006). Type II applications of information technology in education: The next revolution. Computers in the Schools, 23, 1-5. doi:10.1300/J025v23n01_01
36.
MartinN. M.LambertC. (2015). Differentiating digital writing instruction: The intersection of technology, writing instruction, and digital genre knowledge. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 59, 217-227. doi:10.1002/jaal.435
37.
McCutchenD. (1996). A capacity theory of writing: Working memory in composition. Educational Psychology Review, 8, 299-325. doi:10.1007/BF01464076
38.
National Center for Education Statistics. (2012). The Nation’s Report Card: Writing 2011 (NCES 2012-470). Washington, DC: Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.
39.
Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development. (2015). Students, computers and literacy: Making the connection (PISA). Paris, France: Author.
40.
Ottenbreit-LeftwichA. T.BrushT. A.StryckerJ.GronsethS.RomanT.AbaciS.. . .PluckerJ. (2012). Preparation versus practice: How do teacher education programs and practicing teachers align in their use of technology to support teaching and learning?Computers & Education, 59, 399-411. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2012.01.014
41.
PenningtonM. C. (1993). Exploring the potential of word processing for non-native writers. Computers and the Humanities, 27, 149-163. doi:10.1007/BF01830068
RoscoeR. D.WilsonJ.JohnsonA. C.MayraC. R. (2017). Presentation, expectations and experience: Sources of student perceptions of automated writing evaluation. Computers in Human Behavior, 70, 207-221. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.12.076
44.
RussellM.BebellD.O’DwyerL.O’ConnorK. (2003). Examining teacher technology use: Implications for preservice and inservice teacher preparation. Journal of Teacher Education, 54, 297-310. doi:10.1177/0022487103255985
45.
SandholtzJ. H.ReillyB. (2004). Teachers, not technicians: Rethinking technical expectations for teachers. Teachers College Record, 106, 487-512. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9620.2004.00348.x
46.
ShermisM.BursteinJ. (Eds.). (2013). Handbook of automated essay evaluation: Current applications and new directions. New York, NY: Routledge.
47.
StevensonM. (2016). A critical interpretative synthesis: The integration of Automated Writing Evaluation in classroom writing instruction. Computers and Composition, 42, 1-16. doi:10.1016/j.compcom.2016.05.001
48.
StevensonM.PhakitiA. (2014). The effects of computer-generated feedback on the quality of writing. Assessing Writing, 19, 51-65. doi:10.1016/j.asw.2013.11.007
49.
SuhrK. A.HernandezD. A.GrimesD.WarschauerM. (2010). Laptops and fourth grade literacy: Assisting the jump over the fourth-grade slump. The Journal of Technology, Learning and Assessment, 9, 5-45.
50.
TateT.WarschauerM. (2017). The digital divide in language and literacy education. In ThorneS.MayS.(Eds.), Encyclopedia of language and education: Language, education and technology (3rd ed., pp. 45-56). Cham: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-02328-1
51.
TateT.WarschauerM.AbediJ. (2016). The effects of prior computer use on computer-based writing: The 2011 NAEP writing assessment. Computers & Education, 101, 115-131. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2016.06.001
52.
TateT.WarschauerM.KimY.-S. (2019). Learning to compose digitally: The effect of prior computer use and keyboard activity on NAEP writing. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal. doi: 10.1007/s11145-019-09940-z
U.S. Department of Education. (2010). Transforming American education: Learning powered by technology. Washington, DC: Office of Educational Technology.
55.
U.S. Department of Education. (2016). Future ready learning: Reimagining the role of technology in education (Office of Educational Technology. 2016). National Education Technology Plan. Available from http://tech.ed.gov
56.
Van IttersumD. (2011). Augmenting literacy: The role of expertise in digital writing. Composition Studies, 39, 61-77.
57.
WarschauerM. (2003). Technology and social inclusion: Rethinking the digital divide. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
58.
WarschauerM. (2006). Laptops and literacy: Learning in the wireless classroom. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
59.
WarschauerM. (2007). A teacher’s place in the digital divide. Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, 106, 147-166. doi:10.1111/j.1744-7984.2007.00118.x
60.
WarschauerM. (2011). Learning in the cloud: How (and why) to transform schools with digital media. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.
61.
WarschauerM.ZhengB.NiiyaM.CottenS.FarkasG. (2014). Balancing the one-to-one equation: Equity and access in three laptop programs. Equity & Excellence in Education, 47, 46-62. doi:10.1080/10665684.2014.866871
62.
WertschJ. V. (1991). Voices of the mind: A sociocultural approach to mediated action. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
63.
WilsonJ.OlinghouseN. G.McCoachD. B.SantangeloT.AndradaG. N. (2016). Comparing the accuracy of different scoring methods for identifying sixth graders at risk of failing a state writing assessment. Assessing Writing, 27, 11-23. doi:10.1016/j.asw.2015.06.003
64.
YimS.WarschauerM.ZhengB. (2016). Google Docs in the classroom: A districtwide case study. Teachers College Record, 118, 1-32. doi:10.1128/IAI.72.3.1265
65.
ZhengB.AradaK.NiiyaM.WarschauerM. (2014). One-to-one laptops in K-12 classrooms: Voices of students. Pedagogies: An International Journal, 9, 279-299. doi:10.1080/1554480X.2014.955499
66.
ZhengB.LawrenceJ.WarschauerM.LinC.-H. (2015). Middle school students’ writing and feedback in a cloud-based classroom environment. Technology, Knowledge and Learning, 20, 201-229. doi:10.1007/s10758-014-9239-z
67.
ZhengB.WarschauerM.LinC.-H.ChangC. (2016). Learning in one-to-one laptop environments: A meta-analysis and research synthesis. Review of Educational Research, 86, 1052-1084. doi:10.3102/0034654316628645
