Astaxanthin as a regulator of Nrf2,NF-κB,and their interactions: Molecular mechanisms and potential clinical applications

Abstract

Astaxanthin (AST) is a marine-derived xanthophyll carotenoid widely distributed in aquatic organisms and edible seafood. Owing to its unique molecular structure and potent antioxidant properties, AST has attracted considerable attention as both a nutraceutical and a potential therapeutic agent. Increasing evidence indicates that oxidative stress and inflammation are interconnected processes that contribute to the onset and progression of numerous chronic diseases. In this context, AST has emerged as an important modulator of cellular defense mechanisms. This review summarizes current knowledge regarding the effects of AST on two major redox-sensitive transcription factors, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB). Nrf2 coordinates the expression of genes involved in antioxidant defense and detoxification, whereas NF-κB regulates inflammatory and immune responses through the induction of cytokines, chemokines, and adhesion molecules. Particular attention is given to the molecular crosstalk between these pathways and the mechanisms through which AST restores redox and inflammatory homeostasis. Furthermore, recent experimental and clinical evidence supporting the therapeutic potential of AST in diseases associated with oxidative stress and chronic inflammation is discussed.

Graphical Abstract