Abstract
Introduction
Over the past few years, many social studies teachers have found themselves at a crossroads: teach authentic, true history and face possible administrative backlash, or teach a whitewashed version of history that is politically digestible and compromise the very reason one became a social studies teacher. Several states are attempting to use “Anti-Woke” policies to safeguard against alleged “divisive concepts” such as racism, white supremacy, slavery, and women’s suffrage. The social studies classroom is in danger of becoming an environment where the critical analysis and discussion of history and social issues are not encouraged (Caldera et al., 2023; NCSS, 2021; Stitzlein, 2022). Florida’s most recent revision of the African American History strand of its social studies standards requires educators to teach that enslaved people benefited from slavery by developing certain skills (Planas, 2023; Rozsa, 2023). This standard is problematic in that it does not address the fact that enslaved people could not use these skills for their own personal benefit within the slavery system. It also implies that enslaved people were given a choice to learn these skills, and that somehow, there was a benevolence to the system that in reality, viewed them as human chattel and robbed them of their free will (NCSS, 2023). It is because of the current state of teaching U. S. history that Teaching Enslavement in American History: Lesson Plans and Primary Sources (Bohan et al., 2022) is so relevant and timely.
The authors of Teaching Enslavement in American History were completing the book as conservative politicians were taking aim at Critical Race Theory and The 1619 Project (Hannah-Jones et al., 2021), declaring both as attempts to indoctrinate young minds and rewrite American history (Rozsa, 2023). Today, these and similar indictments continue to be talking points on political agendas, resulting in many teachers choosing to take the path of least resistance, and not go into an in-depth analysis of slavery and its impact on the American consciousness. Bohan et al. (2022) provide a series of lesson plans for the U. S. history classroom that may be used to combat the pushback teachers may face when teaching about slavery in American history. Each lesson requires students to critically analyze slavery through political, economic, social, and cultural lenses. An example is the lesson in chapter 8 where students are guided to examine the motives and words of enslavers in the Antebellum South. The prevailing reason students may want assign to slaveholders’ motives is racism. However, the lesson urges an in-depth analysis that reveals economic factors such as overreliance on slave labor, cultural factors like the Southern concept of paternalism, and political factors, such as how slaveholders define democracy and rights. The National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) supports this type of approach in its C3 Framework (NCSS, 2013a), which emphasizes interdisciplinary teaching. These ideas underscore a theme that is interwoven throughout the book, which is that the topic of slavery in the United States is not simple, but complex (King, 2020). Influences such as the human costs, social and political conflicts, reform movements, geographical party lines, and historical legacies must be taken into consideration. Therefore, the teaching of slavery should be taught in a way that appreciates complexities and engages students in pedagogy that encourages inquiry, thorough investigation, and empathy.
Organization of Teaching Enslavement in American History
Bohan et al. (2022) examine the chronological history of slavery in America through nine chapters in their book from the colonial to Reconstruction eras. Each chapter provides a detailed history of the time period, providing background knowledge and historical context. Social studies teachers who are using the book will find this if they are unfamiliar with an era or the nuances that are inherent in that time period. Each chapter also includes two lesson plans, one based on the Inquiry Design Model (IDM) and the other based on the Document-Based Question (DBQ) format. Both formats encourage the thorough analysis and corroboration of multiple sources, and require students to form, communicate, and support their conclusions. Primary and secondary sources are provided to support the lessons. The authors stress that the book is constructed around national and state standards regarding teaching slavery in American history for middle and high school social studies classrooms.
The first chapter, “Slavery in Colonial America,” focuses on two main themes in the historical narrative: diversity and conformity. Bohan et al. (2022) point out that slavery has traditionally been taught in such a way that belies the fact that slavery was multifaceted and differed from one region to another. Each section of the colonies, from New England to the Chesapeake, is examined in detail, describing how enslaved people were treated, formed communities, and the type of labor they were expected to perform. Despite the diversity that existed, there was conformity as well. Over time, all the colonies moved resolutely toward enacting laws to cement slavery as part of the American infrastructure and permanently connected race to servitude. The lesson plans explore these topics in depth. The IDM does this through the analysis of Bacon’s Rebellion in 1676 and enslaved Africans’ participation in this uprising. The DBQ delves further into the theme of diversity by comparing the effects of tobacco and rice production on the lives of enslaved people. Each of these lessons guide students to examine the complexities of enslavement in colonial America.
Chapters 2 and 3, “The Middle Passage” and “African Cultural Retention,” respectively, complement each other. Chapter 2 provides an exploration of the origins of the Atlantic Slave trade, and how economic, cultural, and political factors ensured its propagation until the early 1800s. Chapter 3 builds on this topic by describing how enslaved Africans kept their culture once they reached the Americas and the Caribbean, despite efforts by slaveholders to erase it. These two chapters are important because they dispel many errors in the teaching of the slave trade and highlight the agency of enslaved Africans, a topic which is often overlooked. Captured Africans were critical in sabotaging and ending the Atlantic slave trade, as they took measures to rebel and defend against those who sought to enslave them. In addition, as slaveholders tried to stamp out any vestiges of African culture, enslaved people adapted and passed down traditions that are still evident today in food, music, social customs, dress, and religious practices. The lessons encapsulate both of these ideas by guiding students in examining how cultures retain and protect parts of their culture as a way to survive trauma.
Chapters 4 and 5 may be viewed as extensions of each other as well, as one led directly to the other. Chapter 4, “Slavery and the Constitution,” examines how the U. S. Constitution, the foundation of American and democratic ideals, upheld and legitimized slavery as an economic institution. The authors make the case that the Founding Fathers compromised on the issue of slavery to expedite the ratification of the U. S. Constitution. In chapter 5, “Slavery in the Early Republic,” it is discussed how the U. S. had to deal with the ramifications of this compromise, as the issue had all the early indications of having the power to divide the nation. These two chapters are essential because students are guided to question the morality of such a compromise in exchange for a unified nation. Finally, students are encouraged to look at the U. S. Constitution as a document that is not easily interpreted but requires an in-depth analysis to examine the changing American political, economic, and social landscape when amendments are made.
Chapter 6, “Enslavement and Resistance,” is a necessary addition to teaching about slavery because it dismisses the idea that enslaved people were submissive and did not actively resist their condition. The authors examine two forms of resistance, open rebellion, and the more common day-to-day resistance. Some examples of day-to-day resistance discussed include sabotaging equipment, arson, and even women pretending to be pregnant to avoid working or punishment. These disruptions to the economy were stories of agency and allowing students to examine these are vital to understanding how enslaved people were able to survive within the system of slavery. The lessons require students to analyze the effectiveness of various forms of resistance to oppression, as well as how it evolved in the 18th and 19th centuries. They consider resistance as a story of agency and not subjugation, countering the traditional narratives that have been taught in the history classrooms.
Chapter 7 is shorter in comparison to the others, but “Abolitionism” provides an in-depth exploration of what the authors refer to as “the first great human rights movement” (Bohan et al., 2022, p. 161). Adhering to the thread of dispelling misleading or false information about enslavement, this chapter illustrates how abolition was not a uniform movement, but one as complex as the people who joined the effort to end slavery in the United States. These people represented all strata of society, which is evident in the differing methods employed to protest slavery. The abolitionists’ agenda varied slightly over time, with the first focus on ending the slave trade and enacting compensated emancipation laws, and later changing to an immediate end to slavery with no compensation. This chapter describes how disagreements about how to achieve these goals resulted in factions within the movement. However, regardless to the motives or manners in which people chose to protest, the authors leave no doubt that abolitionists were the inspiration to later reform and social justice movements in American history. The lesson asks students to grapple with a question that transcends historical eras, and remains relevant in contemporary society: is it morally and ethically justified to use violence to fight for social injustice? The goal of social studies teachers is to guide students to understand how the past connects to and has implications for the present. This question raised in this chapter achieves that as students must consider this dilemma through a historical lens, but also how violence continues to be used as a method for others to express their outrage in the face of perceived racism and oppression.
The last two chapters analyze slavery as the U. S. was on the brink of the Civil War and post-war policies during Reconstruction that impacted the lives of formerly enslaved people. Chapter 8, “Slavery and the Coming of the Civil War, 1833-1860,” continues to probe how politicians legislatively maneuvered to avoid the inevitable split of the nation. The authors chronicle how two issues persisted in plaguing politicians: fugitive slaves continuing to be arrested in northern states and expanding slavery into the western territories. These and other events, such as the Supreme Courts’s Dred Scott decision and Lincoln’s election in 1860, pushed the nation toward the U. S. Civil War. Chapter 9, “Civil War and Emancipation,” tackles two long-standing myths: Lincoln freed the slaves and Reconstruction failed. Both statements have truth to them. However, they do not consider the role free and enslaved Black people played in achieving their own freedom, nor does it recognize that while Lincoln’s vision of Reconstruction did not materialize, it did see the enactment of the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments to the U. S. Constitution. The IDM and DBQ lessons require students to consider the intersection of political and social factors that influenced the motives of slaveholders who fought to keep slavery, not only in the South, but also to see its expansion into new territories. Through the analysis of sources, students investigate the differing ideas of liberty, and what it meant to enslaved people and slaveholders, who saw no contradiction between slavery and democracy. This leads to the topic for chapter 9’s lesson, which is “When are the freed really freed?” (Bohan et al., 2022, p. 222). Through these lessons, students are provided the opportunity to analyze sources and investigate the federal and state governments’ parts in aiding and hindering the enfranchisement and progress of African Americans under the law and in society.
Discussion
Teaching Enslavement in American History (Bohan et al., 2022) is relevant and needed in U. S. history classes today. There is no denying that traditionally social studies have been taught in such a way that oft-marginalized groups’ voices are ignored or their contributions to the American story have been minimized (King, 2020). Political measures to limit or censor what students are taught about history seek to whitewash difficult topics, especially the tragedy of slavery in U. S. history. There is instead a preference to teach “feel-good” stories, such as Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. This results in denying students the right to investigate the past authentically and understand why certain contemporary issues remain unresolved (Metro, 2017).
A common accusation from detractors is that teaching slavery and other difficult topics will ultimately vilify white Americans and make white students in the class feel guilty. To combat potential pushback from administration or stakeholders, the authors urge social studies teachers to become subject matter experts. The historical backgrounds and lessons provide a basis to do so. The history in each chapter provides a detailed narrative and provides context for the subsequent lessons. This is useful, especially for teachers who are not well versed on the topic. The lessons promote historical thinking and an inclusive curriculum that exposes students to diverse voices in history. Each lesson requires students to analyze multiple sources that represent varying perspectives across race, gender, and class. Students corroborate these sources, drawing informed conclusions, and make arguments based on historical evidence. Teaching Enslavement in American History (Bohan et al., 2022) aligns with the goals of the C3 Framework (NCSS, 2013a), which urges educators to teach students how to recognize multiple perspectives and evaluate history and its people honestly and accurately through in-depth analysis of evidence (NCSS, 2013a, 2023).
While each lesson promotes historical and critical thinking, they do not address the needs of learners who may struggle academically. The authors acknowledge that the lessons, the DBQs in particular, were patterned after the writing prompts for the Advance Placement (AP) in American History exams. Many of the students who take AP exams are high achieving. The lessons appear to be geared more toward these types of learners. There are educators who want to teach about the history of slavery in America and use inquiry-based learning. However, these lessons may be difficult to implement in their classrooms if they teach students who struggle with reading and writing.
Each lesson provides a variety of primary and secondary sources and activities to engage learners. However, the authors do not provide instructions for how to adapt the activities for students who have individualized educational plans (IEPs), English language learners (ELLs), and/or those students who are low achieving academically. Educators who want to teach the topics presented in the book but may not know how to accommodate or modify the activities, may become overwhelmed or frustrated. This may occur because they do not understand how to revise the primary and secondary sources, so the readability levels are easier, or these teachers need direction regarding how to scaffold the activities. It is important that all students are able to engage in learning that teaches them how to think critically, make connections between the past and present, and evaluate and construct arguments. Teaching Enslavement in American History (Bohan et al., 2022) teaches these skills, but the lessons are not set up for all learners. Experienced teachers will have an easier time in revising the lessons, but for pre-service and novice teachers, doing so will be challenging. This may discourage some social studies teachers who read this book from learning how to teach slavery with accuracy and inquiry. That would be a disservice to the students who, no matter their academic levels, should be allowed to engage in activities that spark curiosity and result in a deeper examination of topics connected to slavery in the United States.
Conclusion
In a conservative political climate that attempts to villainize teachers who want to teach U. S. history accurately, educators must bravely take the stand that history is best examined, when done so through a critical lens. The authors of Teaching Enslavement in American History (Bohan et al., 2022) stated that this is a book for social studies teachers. This is true, as this is a book that provides social studies teachers with a source for inquiry-based lessons about exploring slavery in U. S. history. It is vital that students are able to learn all the blemishes in American history and understand the historical legacies that still exist today. One of the goals of social studies is to prepare students to be active and effective citizens in a democratic society (NCSS, 2013b). To do this, K-12 students must participate in an in-depth analysis of the past to ensure, when they are future democratic citizens, that they can work to affect change and address the vestiges of America’s racist past to create a more inclusive present and future for all Americans. Bohan et al. (2022) contribute to this goal by providing educators with lessons that engender honest discussion and thorough examination into one of America’s darkest times. Hopefully, this book shines a light through the political discourse, allowing students to engage truthfully and nonjudgmentally with the past.