Addressing the Gendered Interests of Victims/Survivors of Conflict-Related Sexual Violence and Their Children Through National Action Plans on Women,Peace and Security
Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online August, 2020
Addressing the Gendered Interests of Victims/Survivors of Conflict-Related Sexual Violence and Their Children Through National Action Plans on Women,Peace and Security
There is growing acknowledgement of the need to address the impacts of conflict-related sexual violence (CRSV), with less recognition of conflict-related reproductive and maternal harms and children born of war (CBW). An intricate set of common as well as distinctive interests arise for both victims/survivors and their children that remain unfulfilled. National Action Plans on Women, Peace and Security (NAPs-WPS) present an opportunity to redress these gaps. This article examines to what extent are NAPs-WPS responsive to the specific rights and gendered interests of victims/survivors of CRSV and their children? It advances thinking on gender planning for peace and security and makes three significant analytical contributions: a ‘Typology of Impacts and Losses’ advancing understanding of CRSV; a ‘Gender Interests Analysis’ framework, identifying the practical and strategic gender interests of victims/survivors and their children; and application of these frameworks to produce a critical analysis of the NAPs-WPS of Indonesia, Nepal, Philippines and Timor-Leste. It finds that planning under WPS is failing to ensure that multi-sectoral services are available, while reproductive and maternity issues and CBW are completely neglected in the selected NAPs-WPS. The article discusses the implications of these findings for gender planning through NAPs-WPS going forward.
Advocacy Forum, ICTJ. (2010). Across the lines: The impacts of Nepal’s conflict on women. Advocacy Forum, International Centre on Transitional Justice (ICTJ), Nepal. https://www.ictj.org/sites/default/files/ICTJ-Nepal-Across-Lines-2010-English.pdf.
2.
Arquiza, & MaryF. B. (2011). Women and conflict: Trafficking in persons in internally displaced people camps in Mindanao. Mindanao Migrants Center for Empowering Actions, Inc. (MMCEAI). https://www.mpiasia.net/component/booklibrary/2/view_bl/63/64/women-and-conflict-trafficking-in-persons-in-internally-displaced-people-camps-in-mindanao.html?Itemid=2
3.
Assosiasaun Hak. (2010). Feto Timorense Iha Tempu Okupasaun Japaun (1942–1945). Assosiasaun Hak, Koligasaun Japaun Ba Timor-Leste.
4.
BaileyA. (1994). Mothering, diversity, and peace politics. Hypatia, 9(2), 188–198.
5.
CarpenterR. C., GriegK., SharkeyD., BaldiG., WheelerR., & Jose-ThotaB. (2005). Protecting children born of sexual violence and exploitation in conflict zones: Existing practice and knowledge gaps. University of Pittsburgh. https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/15144/Protecting_Children_Report.pdf
6.
CAVR. (2006). Chega! The final report of the Timor-Leste commission for reception, truth and reconciliation (CAVR): A plain guide(Vol. I, II, III and IV). CAVR. https://www.etan.org/news/2006/cavr.htm
7.
CEDAW. (2011, August 11). Concluding observations of the committee on the elimination of discrimination against women, Nepal. CEDAW/C/NPL/CO/4–5. CEDAW.
8.
CEDAW. (2013, November 1). General recommendation No. 30 on women in conflict prevention, conflict and post-conflict situations. CEDAW/C/GC/30. CEDAW.
9.
CEDAW. (2015a, March 2). Concluding observations on the combined seventh and eighth periodic reports of the Philippines, CEDAW/C/PHL/CO/7–8. CEDAW.
10.
CEDAW. (2015b, November 24). Concluding observations of the committee on the elimination of discrimination against women of Timor-Leste, CEDAW/C/TLS/CO/2–3. CEDAW.
11.
CohnC. (2013). Women and wars: Toward a conceptual framework. In CohnC. (Ed.), Women and wars(pp. 1–35). Polity Press.
12.
CollinsP. H. (1990). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousnessand the politics of empowerment. Routledge.
13.
CollinsP. H. (1992). Shifting the center: Race, class andf eminist theorizing about motherhood(Unpublished Paper).
14.
CoomaraswamyR. (1999, January 21). Report of the special rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences, Ms. Radhika Coomaraswamy, Mission to Indonesia and East Timor on the issue of violence against women, E/CN.4/1999/68/Add.3. United Nations. https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6b0fb4.html
15.
CoomaraswamyR.. (2015). Preventing conflict, transforming justice, securing the peace: A global study on the implementation of United Nations security council resolution 1325. UN Women. https://wps.unwomen.org/about/
16.
CrenshawK. (1993). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identity politics, and violence against women of color. Stanford Law Review, 43, 1241–1299.
17.
de LangisT. (2012). Asia-Pacific regional women’s hearing on gender-based violence in conflict, Report on the Proceedings. Cambodian Defenders Project. http://gbvkr.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Asia-Pacific-Regional-Womens-Hearing-on-GBV-in-Conflict-2012-Report.pdf
18.
DiquinzioP. (1999). Introduction: Mothering and feminism, essential motherhood and the dilemma of difference. Routledge.
19.
Documentation Working Group on Violence and Human Rights Violations against Women 2009–2010. (2010). Enough is enough! Testimonies of Papuan women victims of violence and human rights violations 1963–2009. ICTJ, the Women Commission, and the Women Working Group of Papuan People Assembly.
20.
DwyerL., & Cagoco-GuiamR. (2012). Gender and conflict in Mindanao. The Asia Foundation.
21.
EngleK. (2014). The grip of sexual violence: Reading UN security council resolutions on human security. In Gina HeathcoteD. O. (Ed.), Rethinking peacekeeping, gender equality and collective security(pp. 23–47). Palgrave MacMillan.
22.
EngleK.. (2018). Feminist governance and international law: From liberal to carceral feminism. In HalleyJ.KotiswaranP.RebouchéR.ShamirH. (Eds.), Governance feminism: Notes from the field(pp. 3–30). University of Minnesota Press.
23.
EnloeC. (2004). The curious feminist: Searching for women in a new age of empire. University of California Press.
24.
ETAN. (2007). ETAN backgrounder: Sexual violence against east Timorese women during the Japanese occupation. East Timor Action Network. http://www.etan.org/etanpdf/2007/formatted_comfort_women_bckgrndr.pdf
25.
FaludiL., PereiraN., ScrivnerA., & WanditaG. (2017). Timor-Leste’s children of war: A promise to heal. Asia Justice and Rights. https://asia-ajar.org/2018/11/policy-paper-timor-lestes-children-of-war-a-promise-to-heal/
26.
Framework of Cooperation. (2018, March 21). Framework of cooperation between the office of the special representative of the Secretary General on sexual violence in conflict and the committee of the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women.
27.
Government of Nepal. (2011). National action plan on implementation of the United Nations security council resolution 1325 and 1820, 2011/12–2016/17. Government of Nepal.
28.
Government of the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste. (2016). National action plan on United Nations security council resolution 1325 (2000) on women, peace and security. Government of the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste.
29.
Government of the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste. (2017). National action plan on gender based violence 2017–2021. Government of the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste.
30.
Government of the Philippines. (2010). The Philippine national action plan on UNSCRs 1325 & 1820: 2010–2016. Government of the Philippines.
31.
Government of the Republic of Indonesia. (2014). The national action plan for the protection and empowerment of women and children during social conflicts of 2014–2019. Government of the Republic of Indonesia.
32.
GriegK. (2001). The war children of the world. War and Children Identity Project. https://www.academia.edu/2189623/The_war_children_of_the_world
33.
HagenJ. J. (2016). Queering women, peace and security. International Affairs, 92(2), 313–332.
34.
HankivskyO., GraceD., HuntingG., FerlatteO., ClarkN., FridkinA, GiesbrechtM., RudrumS., & LavioletteT. (2012). Intersectionality-based policy analysis. In HankivskyO. (Ed.), An intersectionality-based policy analysis framework(pp. 33–45). Institute for Intersectionality Research and Policy, Simon Fraser University.
35.
HHRM. (2011). Shadow report on Nepal: Sexual violence against women during armed conflict. Submitted to United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women. Himalayan Human Rights Monitors. https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CEDAW/Shared%20Documents/NPL/INT_CEDAW_NGO_NPL_49_9798_E.pdf
36.
Hill KayH. (1985). Equality and difference: The case of pregnancy. Berkeley Women’s Law Journal, 1, 1–38.
37.
HynesM., WardJ., RobertsonK., & CrouseC. (2004). A Determination of the prevalence of gender-based violence among conflict-affected populations in Timor Leste. Disasters, 28(3), 294–321.
38.
IRC. (2017). The impact of the call to action on protection from gender-based violence in emergencies. International Rescue Committee. https://reliefweb.int/report/world/impact-call-action-protection-gender-based-violence-emergencies
39.
IRC. (2019). Where is the money? How the humanitarian system is failing in its committments to end violence against women and girls. International Rescue Committee. https://www.rescue.org/report/wheres-money-how-humanitarian-system-failing-fund-end-violence-against-women-and-girls
40.
KinserA. E. (2010). Motherhood and feminism. California Seal Press.
41.
MagoneC. (2014). Collecting data on sexual violence: What do we need to know? The case of MSF in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Humanitarian Exchange, 60. https://odihpn.org/magazine/collecting-data-on-sexual-violence-what-do-we-need-to-know-the-case-of-msf-in-the-democratic-republic-of-congo/.
42.
MarchC., SmythI., & MukhopadhyayM. (1999). A guide to gender analysis frameworks. Oxfam. https://www.ndi.org/sites/default/files/Guide%20to%20Gender%20Analysis%20Frameworks.pdf
43.
MertensC., & MyrttinenH. (2019). ‘A real woman waits’—Heteronormative respectability, neo-liberal betterment and echoes of coloniality in SGBV programming in Eastern DR Congo. Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding, 13(4), 418–439.
44.
MolyneuxM. (1985). Mobilization without emancipation? Women’s interests, the state and revolution in Nicaragua. Feminist Studies, 11(2), 227–254.
45.
MoserC. O. N. (1993). Gender planning and development: Theory, practice and training. Routledge.
46.
NeenanJ. (2018). Closing the protection gap for children born of war: Addressing stigmatisation and the intergenerational impact of sexual violence in conflict. Centre on Women, Peace and Security, LSE. http://www.lse.ac.uk/women-peace-security/assets/documents/2018/LSE-WPS-Children-Born-of-War.pdf
47.
Ní AoláinF. (2000). Rethinking the concept of harm and legal categorizations of sexual violence during war. Theoretical Inquiries in Law, 1, 307–340.
48.
Ní AoláinF., O’ RourkeC., SwaineA. (2015). Transforming reparations for conflict-related sexual violence: Principles and practice. Harvard Human Rights Journal, 28(1), 95–144.
49.
O’ RourkeC. (2013). Gender politics in transitional justice. Routledge.
50.
O’RourkeC., & SwaineA. (2018). CEDAW and the security council: Enhancing women’s rights in conflict. International and Comparative Law Quarterly, 67(1), 167–199.
51.
OHCHR. (2012). Nepal conflict report: An analysis of conflict-related violations of international human rights law and international humanitarian law between February 1996 and 21 November 2006. United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/NP/OHCHR_Nepal_Conflict_Report2012.pd
52.
OttoD. (2010). Power and danger: Feminist engagement with international law through the UN security council. The Australian Feminist Law Journal, 32, 97–121.
53.
PereiraM., MolonyT., WanditaG., & SaragihS. (2016). Where are they now? Women victims ten years after the Chega! Report in Timor-Leste. Asosiasaun Chega ba Ita. http://www.chegabaita.org/Files/Policy%20paper%20English%20version.pdf
54.
Philippine Alliance of Women with Disabilities. (2016). CEDAW 64th session (4–22 July 2016): Submission by the Philippine alliance of women with disabilities for consideration in the review of the state party of the Republic of the Philippines (shadow report). Philippine Alliance of Women with Disabilities. https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CEDAW/Shared%20Documents/PHL/INT_CEDAW_NGO_PHL_24222_E.pdf
55.
PrattN. (2013). Reconceptualizing gender, reinscribing racial–sexual boundaries in international security: The case of UN security council resolution 1325 on ‘women, peace and security’. International Studies Quarterly, 57, 772–783.
56.
PrimariantariR. (1999). Women, violence, and gang rape in Indonesia. Cardozo Journal of International and Comparative Law, 7, 245–276.
57.
PuechguirbalN. (2004). Women and children: Deconstructing a paradigm. Seton Hall Journal of Diplomacy and Interntional Relations, 5, 5–16.
58.
Ramji-NogalesJ. (2011). Questioning hierarchies of harm: Women, forced migration and international criminal law. International Criminal Law Review, 11(3), 463–476.
59.
RimmerS. H. (2007). ‘Orphans’ or veterans? Justice for children born of war in east Timor. Texas International Law Journal, 42(2), 323–344.
60.
ScullyP. (2009). Vulnerable women: A critical reflection on human rights discourse and sexual violence. Emory International Law Review, 23, 113–124.
61.
RimmerS. H.. (2011). Gender, history and human rights. In HodgsonD. L. (Ed.), Gender and culture at the limit of rights(pp. 17–31). University of Pennsylvania Press.
62.
SetoD. (2013). No place for a war baby: The global politics of children born of wartime sexual violence. Ashgate.
63.
ShahrashoubR., & MillerC. (1995). From WID to GAD: Conceptual shifts in the women and development discourse. United Nations Research Institute for Social Development, United Nations Development Programme. http://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BCCF9/(httpPublications)/D9C3FCA78D3DB32E80256B67005B6AB5
64.
ShepherdL. J. (2016). Making war safe for women? National action plans and the militarisation of the women, peace and security agenda. International Political Science Review, 37(3), 324–335.
65.
Sierra Leone Truth and Reconciliation Commission. (2004). Witness to truth (Vol. 3B). Report of the Sierra Leone Truth and Reconciliation Commission. https://www.sierraleonetrc.org/index.php/view-report-text-vol-3b/item/volume-three-b-chapter-six
66.
SinghS. (2017). Re-thinking the ‘normative’ in United Nations security council resolution 1325: Perspectives from Sri Lanka. Journal of Asia Security and International Affairs, 4(2), 219–238.
67.
StrasslerK. (2004). Gendered visibilities and the dream of transparency: The Chinese-Indonesian rape debate in post-Suharto Indonesia. Gender and History, 16(3), 689–725.
68.
SwaineA. (2010). Assessing the potential of national action plans to advance implementation of United Nations security council resolution 1325. Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law, 12, 347–377.
69.
SwaineA.. (2016). Making women’s and girl’s needs, well-being and rights central to national action plans in the Asia-Pacific region. UN Women. https://asiapacific.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2016/12/making-womens-and-girls-needs
70.
SwaineA.. (2018a). Conflict-related violence against women: Transforming transition. Cambridge University Press.
71.
SwaineA.. (2018b). Gender planning for peace and security: Re-orienting national action plans. Irish Yearbook of International Law, 13, 39–65.
72.
TicktinM. (2011). The gendered human of humanitarianism: Medicalising and politicising sexual violence. Gender & History, 23(2), 250–265.
73.
Transitional Justice and Reconciliation Commission. (2016). Report of transitional justice and reconciliation commission, Philppines. Transitional Justice and Reconciliation Commission. https://www.menschenrechte-philippinen.de/tl_files/aktionsbuendnis/dokumente/weiterfuehrende%20Dokumentensammlung/Transitional_Justice_and_Reconciliation_Commission_-_Report_2016.pdf
74.
TrojanowskaB. K. (2018). Norm negotiation in the Australian Government’s implementation of UNSCR 1325. Australian Journal of International Affairs, 73(1), 29–44.
75.
UN General Assembly (UNGA). (1979, December 18). Convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women. Treaty Series, 1249. United Nations.
76.
UN General Assembly (UNGA). (1989, November 20). Convention on the rights of the child. Treaty Series. 1577. United Nations.
77.
UN General Assembly (UNGA). (1998, July 17). Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court(last amended 2010).
78.
UN Secretary-General. (2013, September 4). Report of the secretary-general: Women and peace and security, S/2013/525. United Nations. https://reliefweb.int/report/world/report-secretary-general-women-and-peace-and-security-s2013525
79.
UN Secretary-General. (2015, March 23). Conflict-related sexual violence: Report of the Secretary-General, S/2015/203. United Nations. https://reliefweb.int/report/world/conflict-related-sexual-violence-report-secretary-general-s2015203-enar
80.
UN Secretary-General. (2018, March 23). Report of the secretary-general on conflict-related sexual violence, S/2018/250. United Nations. https://reliefweb.int/report/world/report-secretary-general-conflict-related-sexual-violence-s2018250-enar
81.
UN Security Council (UNSC). (2008). Resolution 1820, S/RES/1820.
82.
UN Security Council (UNSC). (2009). Resolution 1888, S/RES/1888.
83.
UN Security Council (UNSC). (2010). Resolution 1960, S/RES/1960.
84.
UN Security Council (UNSC). (2013a). Resolution 2106, S/RES/2013.
85.
UN Security Council (UNSC). (2013b). Resolution 2122, S/RES/2122.
86.
UN Security Council (UNSC). (2019a). Resolution 2467, S/RES/2467.
87.
UN Security Council (UNSC). (2019b). Resolution 2493, S/RES/2493.
88.
UN Women. (2017). Responding to the needs of conflict-related sexual violence victim/survivors and their children in Asia Pacific.
89.
UNICEF. (2007). Birth registration and armed conflict. UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre. https://www.unicef.org/protection/birth_registration_and_armed_conflict(2).pdf
90.
Urban WalkerM. (2009). Gender and violence in focus: A background for gender justice in reparations. In Rubio-MarínR. (Ed.), The gender of reparations: Unsettling sexual hierarchies while redressing human rights violations(pp. 18–62). Cambridge University Press.
91.
Uwechia NzegwuN. (2006). Family matters: Feminist concepts in African philosophy of culture(Annotated ed.). State University of New York Press.
92.
Van EeE., & KleberR. J. (2013). Growing up under a shadow: Key issues in research on and treatment of children born of rape. Child Abuse Review, 22(6), 386–397.
93.
WanditaG., AmtaranA., HkamA., MartinA., SipaA., TualekaB., de AlmeidaC., SumarmiyatiC., PanH. S., RadjaI., Campbell-NelsonK., JaM., PereiraM., MessakhM. V., RomadlonM. N., TinM. D. T., de JesusN., WinN. C., …, MambrasarZ. (2015). Enduring impunity: Women surviving atrocities in the absence of justice. Asia Justice and Rights (AJAR). http://www.asia-ajar.org/files/ENDURING%20IMPUNIY%20final-23%20Nov-press.pdf
94.
Human Rights Watch. (2014). Silenced and forgotten: Survivors of Nepal’s conflict-Era sexual violence. Human Rights Watch. https://reliefweb.int/report/nepal/silenced-and-forgotten-survivors-nepal-s-conflict-era-sexual-violence
95.
WestR. (1991/2018). Jurisprudence and gender. In BartlettK. T.KennedyR. (Eds.), Feminist legal theory: Readings in law and gender(pp. 201–234). Westview Press.Routledge.
96.
WieringaS. E. (1998). Rethinking gender planning: A critical discussion of the use of the concept of gender. Gender, Technology and Development, 2(30) 349–371.
