This article examines how intersecting identities influence beliefs about the legality of same-sex marriage focusing on how religious, political, and sexual identities intersect with ethnicity and gender. Support for same-sex marriage has shifted considerably in the last decade. However, changes in attitudes toward same-sex marriage have not been uniform. Religious and political identities have provided a foundation for support or opposition to marriage rights, and sectarian Protestants and fundamentalist Christians and people who identify as political conservatives or with the Republican Party have opposed marriage equality. Ethnic identities intersect with religious and political identities as well as with sexual and gender identities and family factors to structure support for marriage. Using data from the 2006–2014 General Social Surveys, I examine how commitments to conservative Christianity and the Republican Party have influenced attitudes toward same-sex marriage, and how ethnicity intersects with religious, political, and other identifications to structure support for same-sex marriage.
AbrajanoMarisa. 2010. “Are Blacks and Latinos Responsible for the Passage of Proposition 8? Analyzing Voter Attitudes on California’s Proposal to Ban Same-sex Marriage in 2008.” Political Research Quarterly63:922–32.
2.
AcostaKatie L.2013. Amigas y Amantes: Sexually nonconforming Latinas Negotiate Family. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
3.
AdamczykAmyChengYen-hsin Alice. 2015. “Explaining Attitudes about Homosexuality in Confucian and Non-Confucian Nations: Is there a ‘Cultural’ Influence?” Social Science Research51:276–89.
4.
AdamczykAmyPittCassady. 2009. “Shaping Attitudes about Homosexuality: The Role of Religion and Cultural Context.” Social Science Research38:338–51.
5.
AlaneziFawazSherkatDarren E.2008. “The Religious Participation of U.S. Immigrants: Exploring Contextual and Individual Influences.” Social Science Research37:844–55.
6.
AllisonRachel. 2011. “Race, Gender, and Attitudes toward War in Chicago: An Intersectional Analysis.” Sociological Forum26:668–91.
7.
AlvarezR. MichaelBedollaLisa Garcia. 2003. “The Foundations of Latino Voter Partisanship: Evidence from the 2000 Election.” The Journal of Politics65:31–49.
8.
AminNadiaSherkatDarren E.2014. “Religion, Gender, and Educational Attainment among U.S. Immigrants: Evidence from the New Immigrant Survey.” Pp. 52–74 in Religion and Inequality in America: Research and Theory on Religion’s Role in Stratification, edited by KeisterLisaSherkatDarren E.New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
9.
ArmstrongElizabeth A.BernsteinMary. 2008. “Culture, Power, and Institutions: A Multi-institutional Politics Approach to Social Movements.” Sociological Theory26:74–99.
10.
BankstonCarl L.ZhouMin. 1995. “Religious Participation, Ethnic Identification, and Adaptation of Vietnamese Adolescents in an Immigrant Community.” The Sociological Quarterly36:523–34.
11.
BankstonCarl L.ZhouMin. 1996. “The Ethnic Church, Ethnic Identification, and the Social Adjustment of Vietnamese Adolescents.” Review of Religious Research38:18–38.
12.
BolzendahlCatherineBrooksClem. 2005. “Polarization, Secularization, or Differences as Usual? The Denominational Cleavage in U.S. Social Attitudes since the 1970s.” The Sociological Quarterly. 46:47–78.
13.
BourdieuPierre. 1991. “Genesis and Structure of the Religious Field.” Comparative Social Research13:1–44.
14.
BourdieuPierre. 1993. The Field of Cultural Production. New York: Columbia University Press.
15.
BrooksClem. 2002. “Religion, Politics, and Concern with the Decline of the Family.” American Sociological Review67:191–211.
16.
BrooksClemManzaJeff. 2004. “A Great Divide? Religion and Political Change in U.S. National Elections 1972–2000.” The Sociological Quarterly45:421–50.
17.
BurdetteAmy M.EllisonChristopher G.HillTerrence D.2005. “Conservative Protestantism and Tolerance toward Homosexuals: An Examination of Potential Mechanisms.” Sociological Inquiry75:177–96.
18.
BurtonLinda M.Bonilla-SilvaEduardoRayVictorBuckelewRoseFreemanElizabeth Hordge. 2010. “Critical Race Theories, Colorism, and the Decade’s Research on Families of Color.” Journal of Marriage and Family72 (3): 440–59.
19.
CadgeWendyDayHeatherWildemanChristopher. 2007. “Bridging the Denomination Congregation Divide: Evangelical Lutheran Church in America Congregations Respond to Homosexuality.” Review of Religious Research48:245–59.
20.
CadgeWendyEcklundElaine Howard. 2007. “Immigration and Religion.” Annual Review of Sociology33:359–79.
21.
CadgeWendyOlsonLaura R.WildemanChristopher. 2008. “How Denominational Resources Influence Debate about Homosexuality in Mainline Protestant Congregations.” Sociology of Religion69:187–207.
22.
CampbellDavid E.MonsonQuin J.2008. “The Religion Card: Gay Marriage and the 2004 Election.” Public Opinion Quarterly72:399–419.
23.
ChaturvediNeilan S.2014. “The Next Generation? A Reexamination of Religious Influence on Mexican-American Attitudes toward Same-sex Marriage.” Politics, Groups, and Identities2:589–606.
24.
CohenCathy J.1999. The Boundaries of Blackness: AIDS and the Breakdown of Black Politics. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
25.
ComstockGary David. 2002. Unrepentant Self-affirming, Practice: Lesbian/Bisexual/Gay People within Organized Religion. New York: Continuum.
26.
DhamoonRita Kaur. 2011. “Considerations on Mainstreaming Intersectionality.” Political Research Quarterly64:230–43.
27.
DjupePaul A.OlsonLaura R.GilbertChristopher P.2006. “Whether to Adopt Statements on Homosexuality in Two Denominations: A Research Note.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion45:609–21.
28.
EbaughHelen Rose. 2003. “Religion and New Immigrants.” Pp. 225–239 in Handbook of the Sociology of Religion, edited by DillonMichelle. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
29.
EbaughHelen RoseChafetzJanet Saltzman. 2000. Religion and the New Immigrants: Continuities and Adaptations in Immigrant Congregations. Lanham, MD. AltaMira Press.
30.
EdgellPenny. 2005. Religion and Family in a Changing Society. Princeton. Princeton University Press.
31.
EdgellPennyDockaDanielle. 2007. “Beyond the Nuclear Family? Familism and Gender Ideology in Diverse Religious Communities.” Sociological Forum22:25–50.
32.
EganPatrick J.SherrillKenneth S.2009. California’s Proposition 8: What Happened, and What Does the Future Hold?Washington, DC: National Gay and Lesbian Task Force Policy Institute.
33.
EllisonChristopher G.AcevedoGabriel A.Ramos-WadaAida I.2011. “Religion and Attitudes toward Same-sex Marriage among US Latinos.” Social Science Quarterly92:35–56.
34.
EllisonChristopher G.SherkatDarren E.1995. “The Semi-Involuntary Institution Revisited: Regional Variations in Church Participation Among Black Americans.” Social Forces73:1415–37.
35.
FetnerTina. 2008. How the Religious Right Shaped Lesbian and Gay Activism. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
GayDavid A.LynxwilerJohn P.SmithPatrick. 2015. “Religiosity, Spirituality, and Attitudes toward Same-sex Marriage.” SAGE Open. Published electronically July–September1–14.
38.
HancockAnge-Marie. 2007. “When Multiplication Doesn’t Equal Quick Addition: Examining Intersectionality as a Research Paradigm.” Perspectives on Politics5:63–79.
39.
HankivskyOlenaCormierRenee. 2011. “Intersectionality and Public Policy: Some Lessons from Existing Models.” Political Research Quarterly64:217–29.
40.
HarrisAngelique C.2009. “Marginalization by the Marginalized: Race, Homophobia, Heterosexism, and ‘the Problem of the 21st Century.’”Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services21:430–48.
41.
HarrisAngelique C.2010a. AIDS, Sexuality, and the Black Church: Making the Wounded Whole. Vol. 11. New York, NY: Peter Lang.
42.
HarrisAngelique C.2010b. “Sex, Stigma, and the Holy Ghost: The Black Church and the Construction of AIDS in New York City. Journal of African American Studies14:21–43.
43.
HarrisAngelique C.BattleJuan. 2013. “Unpacking Civic Engagement: The Sociopolitical Involvement of Same-gender Loving Black Women.” Journal of Lesbian Studies17:195–207.
44.
HillTerrence D.MoultonBenjamin E.BurdetteAmy M.2004. “Conservative Protestantism and Attitudes toward Homosexuality: Does Political Orientation Mediate This Relationship?” Sociological Focus37:59–70.
45.
HoutMichaelFischerClaude S.2014. “Explaining Why More Americans Have No Religious Preference: Political Backlash and Generational Succession 1987–2012.” Sociological Science1:423–47.
46.
KalmijnMatthijs. 1998. “Intermarriage and Homogamy: Causes, Patterns, Trends.” Annual Review of Sociology24:395–421.
47.
KeisterLisa A.SherkatDarren E., eds. 2014. Religion and Inequality in America: Research and Theory on Religion’s Role in Stratification. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
48.
LannuttiPamela J.2005. “For Better or Worse: Exploring the Meanings of Same-sex Marriage within the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgendered Community.” Journal of Social and Personal Relationships22:5–18.
49.
LaymanGeoffrey. 2001. The Great Divide: Religious and Cultural Conflict in American Party Politics. New York: Columbia University Press.
50.
LeeJonghoPachonHarry P.2007. “Leading the Way: An Analysis of the Effect of Religion on the Latino Vote.” American Politics Research35:252–72.
51.
LeighleyJan E.VedlitzArnold. 1999. “Race, Ethnicity, and Political Participation: Competing Models and Contrasting Explanations.” The Journal of Politics61:1092–114.
52.
LienPei-te. 1994. “Ethnicity and Political Participation: A Comparison between Asian and Mexican Americans.” Political Behavior16:237–64.
53.
LincolnC. EricMamiyaLawrence H.1990. The Black Church in the African American Experience. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
54.
LoftusJeni. 2001. “America’s Liberalization in Attitudes toward Homosexuality, 1973–1998.” American Sociological Review66:762–82.
55.
McCallLeslie. 2014. “The Complexity of Intersectionality.” Signs30:1771–800.
56.
MenjívarCecilia. 2003. “Religion and Immigration in Comparative Perspective: Catholic and Evangelical Salvadorans in San Francisco, Washington, D.C., and Phoenix.” Sociology of Religion64:21–45.
57.
MerinoStephen M.2013. “Contact with Gays and Lesbians and Same-sex Marriage Support: The Moderating Role of Social Context.” Social Science Research42:1156–66.
MinPyong Gap. 2010. Preserving Ethnicity through Religion in America: Korean Protestants and Indian Hindus across Generations. New York: New York University Press.
60.
MinPyong GapJangSou Hyun. 2015a. “The Concentration of Asian Americans in STEM and Health-care Occupations: An Intergenerational Comparison.” Ethnic and Racial Studies38:841–59.
61.
MinPyong GapJangSou Hyun. 2015b. “The Diversity of Asian Immigrants’ Participation in Religious Institutions in the United States.” Sociology of Religion76:253–74.
62.
MoodCarina. 2010. “Logistic Regression: Why We Cannot Do What We Think We Can and What We Can Do about It.” European Sociological Review26:67–82.
63.
OlsonLaura R.CadgeWendyHarrisonJames T.2006. “Religion and Public Opinion about Same-sex Marriage.” Social Science Quarterly87:340–60.
64.
PeñaMilagrosFrehillLisa M.1998. “Latina Religious Practice: Analyzing Cultural Dimensions in Measures of Religiosity.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion37:620–35.
65.
PerrySamuel L.2015. “Bible Beliefs, Conservative Religious Identity, and Same-sex Marriage Support: Examining Main and Moderating Effects.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion54:792–813.
66.
PowellBrianBolzendahlCatherineGeistClaudiaSteelmanLala Carr. 2010. Counted Out: Same-sex Relations and Americans’ Definitions of Family. New York: Russell Sage.
67.
PowellBrianYork-QuadlinNatashaLevyOren Pizmony. 2015. “Public Opinion, the Courts, and Same-sex Marriage: Four Lessons Learned.” Social Currents2:3–12.
68.
QianZhenchaoLichterDaniel T.2007. “Social Boundaries and Marital Assimilation: Interpreting Trends in Racial and Ethnic Intermarriage.” American Sociological Review72:68–94.
69.
RogersMary F.LottPhillip B.1997. “Backlash, the Matrix of Domination, and Log Cabin Republicans.” The Sociological Quarterly38:497–512.
70.
SchnabelLandon. 2016. “Gender and Homosexuality Attitudes across Religious Groups from the 1970s to 2014: Similarity, Distinction, and Adaptation.” Social Science Research55:31–47.
71.
SchnoorRandal F.2006. “Being Gay and Jewish: Negotiating Intersecting Identities.” Sociology of Religion67:43–60.
72.
SewellWilliam H.Jr.1992. “A Theory of Structure: Duality, Agency, and Transformation.” American Journal of Sociology98:1–29.
73.
SherkatDarren E.1998. “Counterculture or Continuity? Examining Competing Influences on Baby Boomers’ Religious Orientations and Participation.” Social Forces76:1087–114.
74.
SherkatDarren E.2002. “Sexuality and Religious Commitment: An Empirical Assessment.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion41:313–23.
75.
SherkatDarren E.2004. “Religious Intermarriage in the Late 20th Century: Trends and Cohort Differences, 1973–1998.” Social Science Research33:606–26.
76.
SherkatDarren E.2014. Changing Faith: The Dynamics and Consequences of Americans’ Shifting Religious Identities. New York: New York University Press.
77.
SherkatDarren E.2016. “Sexuality and Religious Commitment Revisited: Exploring the Religious Commitments of Sexual Minorities from 1991–2014.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion Forthcoming.
78.
SherkatDarren E.De VriesKylan M.CreekStacia. 2010. “Race, Religion, and Opposition to Same-sex Marriage.” Social Science Quarterly91:79–97.
79.
SherkatDarren E.EllisonChristopher G.1997. “The Cognitive Structure of a Moral Crusade: Conservative Protestantism and Opposition to Pornography.” Social Forces75:957–80.
80.
SherkatDarren E.Powell-WilliamsMelissaMaddoxGregoryde VriesKylan. 2011. “Religion, Politics, and Support for Same-sex Marriage in the United States, 1988–2008.” Social Science Research40:167–80.
81.
SherkatDarren E.WilsonJohn. 1995. “Preferences, Constraints, and Choices in Religious Markets: An Examination of Religious Switching and Apostasy.” Social Forces73:993–1026.
82.
SnowDavid A.RochfordE. BurkeJr.WordenSteven K.BenfordRobert D.1986. “Frame Alignment Processes, Micromobilization, and Movement Participation.” American Sociological Review51:464–81.
83.
SteinbuglerAmy C.PressJulie E.DiasJanice Johnson. 2006. “Gender, Race, and Affirmative Action Operationalizing Intersectionality in Survey Research.” Gender & Society20:805–825.
84.
TreasJudith. 2002. “How Cohorts, Education, and Ideology Shaped a New Sexual Revolution on American Attitudes toward Nonmarital Sex, 1972–1998.” Sociological Perspectives45:267–83.
85.
WadsworthNancy D.2011. “Intersectionality in California’s Same-sex Marriage Battles: A Complex Proposition.” Political Research Quarterly64:200–16.
86.
WhiteheadAndrew L.2014a. “Male and Female He Created Them: Gender Traditionalism, Masculine Images of God, and Attitudes toward Same-sex Unions.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion53:479–96.
87.
WhiteheadAndrew L.2014b. “Politics, Religion, Attribution Theory, and Attitudes toward Same-sex Unions.” Social Science Quarterly95:701–18.
88.
WhiteheadAndrew L.PerrySamuel L.2015. “A More Perfect Union? Christian Nationalism and Support for Same-sex Unions.” Sociological Perspectives58:422–40.
89.
WilcoxMelissa M.2003. Coming Out in Christianity: Religion, Identity, and Community. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
90.
WildavskyAaron. 1987. “Choosing Preferences by Constructing Institutions: A Cultural Theory of Preference Formation.” American Political Science Review81:4–21.
91.
WilliamsRichard. 2009. “Using Heterogeneous Choice Models to Compare Logit and Probit Coefficients across Groups.” Sociological Methods & Research37:531–59.
92.
WongJanelle S.2000. “The Effects of Age and Political Exposure on the Development of Party Identification among Asian American and Latino Immigrants in the United States.” Political Behavior22:341–71.
93.
WoodJames R.BlochJon P.1995. “The Role of Church Assemblies in Building a Civil Society: The Case of the United Methodist General Conference’s Debate on Homosexuality.” Sociology of Religion56:121–36.
94.
YipAndrew K. T.2002. “The Persistence of Faith among Nonheterosexual Christians: Evidence for the Neosecularization Thesis of Religious Transformation.” Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion41:199–212.
95.
YipAndrew K. T.2005. “Queering Religious Texts: An exploration of British Non-heterosexual Christians’ and Muslims’ Strategy of Constructing Sexuality-affirming Hermeneutics.” Sociology39:47–65.
96.
YipAndrew K. T.PageSara J.2013. Religious and Sexual Identities: A Multi-faith Exploration of Young Adults. London, England: Ashgate.
