Abstract
Rapid technological advancement and the growing demand for multimodal learning environments have increasingly reshaped contemporary HSK instruction, highlighting the importance of preparing pre-service Chinese language teachers with pedagogical creativity and digital instructional competence. Therefore, the present study investigated the effects of Digital Task-Based Instruction on the pedagogical creativity development of pre-service Chinese language teachers. The study employed a mixed-methods quasi-experimental design involving 67 pre-service Chinese language teachers divided into an experimental group (n = 33) and a control group (n = 34). Data collection instruments included a modified Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking-based pedagogical creativity assessment, an HSK lesson plan evaluation rubric, and semi-structured interviews. The findings revealed that the experimental group achieved significantly higher pedagogical creativity and multimodal lesson design performance compared to the control group. Originality, elaboration, and multimodal integration demonstrated the strongest improvements following the intervention. However, workload pressure, technological readiness differences, and the need for additional instructional scaffolding were also reported by participants. The findings suggest that Digital Task-Based Instruction may effectively support pedagogical creativity and technology-enhanced HSK instructional design among pre-service Chinese language teachers, although differences in technological readiness and the need for instructional scaffolding should also be acknowledged.
Keywords
Introduction
In the age of globalization and digital transformation, the current emphasis in higher education has been on the cultivation of global competencies (Jiaxin et al., 2024). These competencies extend beyond subject knowledge and technical proficiency to include communication, collaboration, and higher-order cognitive abilities such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity (Lamri & Lubart, 2023). Among these competencies, creative thinking has been a driving force in pedagogical design and practice for educators (Fauzi et al., 2025). In the context of HSK instruction in Thailand, Thai pre-service Chinese language teachers are increasingly required to utilize pedagogical creativity for digital instructional design to address the evolving needs of learners of Chinese as a foreign language (Yang & Jirawit, 2025). Pedagogical creativity refers to the capacity of teachers to adapt varied pedagogical approaches to diverse learner needs and rapidly shifting communicative demands (Skrbinjek et al., 2024). Rather than being viewed as a peripheral instructional skill, creativity is increasingly recognized as a core competency that enables educators to address pedagogical complexity, promote learner autonomy, and design culturally responsive instruction (Artini et al., 2022). In digitally mediated language classrooms, creativity also contributes to the development of dynamic instructional environments that support pedagogical effectiveness and learner engagement (Soh, 2017).
Conventional Constraints and Emerging Pedagogical Demands in TCFL
Despite growing recognition of the significance of creative thinking skills in effective language teaching, a considerable number of teacher education programs, including those in Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language (TCFL), remain largely grounded in traditional instructional paradigms (Sergeeva et al., 2020). These paradigms prioritize linguistic accuracy, student compliance, and standardized assessments, generally at the expense of innovative, student-centered, and context-responsive pedagogies (Götl et al., 2024). Consequently, pre-service teachers tend to be trained to replicate conventional practices that discourage experimentation and reinforce passive instructional routines. This pedagogical conservatism is inconsistent with the needs of modern language classrooms, which include cultural adaptability, digital literacy, and cognitive flexibility. When novice teachers are positioned merely as transmitters of predefined content rather than as designers of meaningful learning experiences, their professional motivation tends to erode over time (Doležal et al., 2025). Addressing this systemic misalignment necessitates a paradigmatic shift in pre-service teacher training, one that foregrounds creative agency as an essential competency for thriving in digitally mediated and pedagogically dynamic learning environments.
In response to these systemic challenges, Digital Task-Based Instruction (DTBI) can be utilized as a feasible approach to promote creativity and support the development of future language teachers (Al-Rashidi, 2025). It is increasingly supported by empirical evidence that when pre-service teachers use well-designed digital tasks such as interactive simulations, gamified modules, or multimodal lesson design, they are able to develop greater instructional agency, collaborative engagement, and pedagogical creativity (Bashir & Jimmy, 2023). This perspective aligns closely with the TPACK framework proposed by Mishra and Koehler (2006), which emphasizes the dynamic interaction among technological tools, pedagogical strategies, and subject content knowledge in the development of innovative instructional practices.
Research Gaps in Digital Task-Based Instruction in the TCFL Context
Task-based learning has long been recognized as holding considerable theoretical promise in language education (East, 2015). Nevertheless, previous research has predominantly focused on language learning outcomes (Bagasala & Estremera, 2025), rather than on the role of digital pedagogies and the development of cognitive competencies among pre-service teachers. This research gap is even more pronounced in the field of TCFL, where most studies have concentrated on in-service educators or English language contexts, with limited attention paid to how structured digital tasks may shape Chinese language pre-service teachers’ evolving perspectives on pedagogical creativity (Maksimova, 2022). Despite increasing interest in digital pedagogy, how structured digital tasks may contribute to the development of instructional agency and teaching creativity among Thai pre-service Chinese language teachers remains relatively underexplored.
To address these gaps, the present study integrated digital competencies with task-based learning, informed by the TPACK framework, as a mechanism to promote the development of pedagogical creativity among pre-service teachers rather than simply as an instructional mode. Accordingly, this study adopts an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design to examine the effects of structured, technology-enabled tasks on the creative capabilities of Thai pre-service Chinese language teachers. The quantitative phase adopts a quasi-experimental design utilizing a modified creativity assessment adapted from the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT), grounded in Torrance's (1968) conceptualization of creativity as a set of cognitive skills including fluency, originality, flexibility, and elaboration. In addition, a post-intervention analysis of digitally integrated lesson plans was conducted to evaluate how teaching creativity was manifested in authentic instructional design practices. The qualitative phase, in turn, seeks to examine pre-service teachers’ authentic experiences and pedagogical reflections through semi-structured interviews from an interpretivist perspective.
Theoretical and Practical Contributions of the Study
Theoretical Contribution
This study contributes to the growing discourse on creativity in language teacher education by positioning teaching creativity as a higher-order cognitive competency that can be cultivated through digitally mediated pedagogical practices. Drawing upon the TPACK framework (Mishra & Koehler, 2006) and the Componential Theory of Creativity (Amabile, 1983), the study further conceptualizes teaching creativity as an intersection of technological, pedagogical, and creative dimensions within teacher development.
Pedagogical Contribution
From a pedagogical perspective, the study demonstrates how structured digital task-based instruction may foster instructional agency, pedagogical creativity, and reflective instructional design among pre-service teachers. The integration of multimodal and technology-enhanced tasks also provides insights into how innovative instructional environments can support more learner-centered and reflective teaching practices.
Practical Contribution to HSK Instruction and TCFL
In the context of Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language (TCFL), this study offers practical implications for the preparation of future Chinese language teachers, particularly in HSK instructional settings in Thailand. The findings may contribute to the development of more creative, digitally responsive, and pedagogically adaptive approaches to HSK teaching in contemporary CFL classrooms.
Considering the theoretical and practical foundations presented above, the present study aims to examine how structured digital task-based instruction promotes teaching creativity among pre-service Chinese language teachers: (1) OB1: To compare pedagogical creativity in HSK instructional design between the experimental group receiving digital task-based instruction and the control group receiving conventional instruction among pre-service Chinese language teachers. (2) OB2: To compare the creative quality of digital-integrated HSK lesson plan design between the experimental group receiving digital task-based instruction and the control group receiving conventional instruction among pre-service Chinese language teachers. (3) OB3: To investigate pre-service Chinese language teachers’ perceptions of how digital task-based instruction influences their pedagogical creativity in HSK instructional design.
Literature Review
Creative Thinking in Contemporary Education: Concepts and Pedagogical Perspectives
Significant policy documents from bodies like the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, 2018) and the National Science Teachers Association (Donovan et al., 2014) emphasize the need to develop 21st-century skills such as creative thinking, problem-solving, communication, and collaboration. Accordingly, creativity has become a central focus of modern educational policy across the globe (Maor et al., 2025). Nevertheless, it remains uncertain to what extent this emphasis on creativity has been effectively realized.
From a theoretical perspective, Guilford (1950) described creative thinking in terms of divergent thinking, “the ability to generate multiple solutions to a problem, in contrast to convergent thinking, where a single answer is desired.” In the context of education, creativity has been conceptualized in terms of two dimensions: creative teaching and teaching for creativity (Brinkman, 2010). The former focuses on the innovative instructional practices of the educator, while the latter is specifically concerned with the development of creativity in the learner (Maor et al., 2025).
While the significance of creative teaching is well acknowledged, it is often perceived as an “added value” rather than an integral professional responsibility for teachers (Beghetto, 2007). The implementation of creative teaching is also subject to various constraints, for instance, standardized assessment pressures, large class sizes, and insufficient teacher training (Maor et al., 2025). In order to foster creativity within educational settings, it is not only necessary to develop pedagogical awareness but also to provide supportive instructional conditions and adequate teacher preparation. In technology-enhanced language learning contexts, particularly within Chinese language education, this gap underscores the need to explore the potential of innovative approaches, such as technology-assisted and task-based instruction, to facilitate the development of creative thinking.
From Conventional Task-Based Learning to Multimodal Digital Task-Based Instruction (DTBI)
The evolution of Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) can be traced back to the pedagogical shift of the 1970s (Skehan, 2003), which marked a transition in language teaching from structure-based instruction toward the Communicative Approach. This shift emphasized the importance of focusing on meaning and communication rather than merely mastering linguistic structures (Brumfit & Johnson, 1979; Widdowson, 1978).
One important early milestone in the 1980s was the Bangalore Project conducted by Prabhu in 1987, which demonstrated the potential of task-based instruction in the classroom and contributed to the establishment of the “task” as a key unit of instruction. This trend was also supported by findings from Second Language Acquisition research, which highlighted the role of interaction in the process of interlanguage development (Hatch, 1978). Subsequently, the concept of TBLT began to be distinguished into “weak” and “strong” forms depending on whether it served as a complement to or the basis of the syllabus (Bruton, 2002; Skehan, 1998).
More recent developments have seen a move away from a strong emphasis on negotiation of meaning (Long, 1983) towards incorporating a Focus on Form (FonF) perspective. This perspective, while maintaining a strong emphasis on meaning, also highlights the importance of attention to linguistic form within meaningful communication (Long & Robinson, 1998; Skehan, 1998). Furthermore, contemporary developments in TBLT theory have reflected a range of perspectives, including psycholinguistic, sociocultural, and cognitive approaches, all of which emphasize the role of tasks in language development. These contemporary developments have also contributed to the emergence of digitally mediated and multimodal task-based pedagogies, in which technology-enhanced tasks extend conventional TBLT beyond face-to-face communicative interaction (Dooly & Sadler, 2020; Thomas & Reinders, 2010). In digitally oriented learning environments, tasks are increasingly designed to integrate multimedia resources, collaborative online interaction, and technology-supported instructional creativity, thereby giving rise to Multimodal Digital Task-Based Instruction (DTBI) (Hampel & Stickler, 2012).
In the present study, DTBI extends conventional task-based language teaching by integrating multimodal digital tasks structured around the TPACK framework. Unlike traditional task-based instruction, which primarily emphasizes communicative interaction and meaning-focused language use, the DTBI approach in this study incorporates digitally mediated instructional design tasks aimed at simultaneously developing technological, pedagogical, and content-related competencies. These tasks involve multimodal content creation, interactive HSK instructional design, digital lesson planning, and technology-enhanced collaborative activities. Through these structured digital tasks, participants are encouraged not only to engage in language-related pedagogical practice but also to develop teaching creativity, pedagogical adaptability, and innovative approaches to HSK instructional design. Such multimodal and technology-enhanced tasks also provide opportunities for creative instructional thinking, flexible pedagogical decision-making, and instructional experimentation in HSK teaching practices.
The TPACK Framework in Language Teacher Education
The increasing integration of digital technologies into language education has highlighted the importance of pedagogical frameworks that explain the relationship among technology, teaching, and disciplinary content. In contemporary language classrooms, teachers are expected not only to possess subject expertise and pedagogical competence but also to integrate technological resources into instructional practices in pedagogically meaningful ways. Within language learning contexts, recent research has increasingly emphasized the relevance of TPACK in supporting technology-enhanced instruction, multimodal learning environments, and digital pedagogical innovation (Huang et al., 2024).
The Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework, proposed by Mishra and Koehler (2006), was conceptually derived from Shulman’s (1986) notion of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK). The framework emphasizes the dynamic interaction among technological knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and content knowledge within authentic instructional contexts. Rather than viewing technology as an isolated teaching tool, TPACK highlights the importance of integrating digital technologies with pedagogical strategies and disciplinary knowledge in ways that support meaningful learning experiences (Almunawaroh et al., 2024).
In the present study, the TPACK framework was integrated into the design of Digital Task-Based Instruction (DTBI) through a sequence of multimodal instructional tasks aligned with different TPACK dimensions. Early-stage activities primarily emphasized technological knowledge (TK), in which participants developed digital literacy and multimedia production skills through HSK-oriented teaching clip design, interactive image creation using Genially, and digital resource development through Google Sites for HSK teaching. Pedagogical knowledge (PK) and pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) were further developed through instructional tasks focusing on teaching processes, age-specific instructional strategies, and the pedagogical design of HSK learning materials.
As the intervention progressed, instructional tasks increasingly emphasized technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK) through the pedagogically meaningful integration of digital tools into language teaching practice. Participants designed HSK interactive worksheets using Wizer.me, developed interactive video lessons through Nearpod, created gamified learning activities using Quizizz and Quizalize, and explored immersive learning environments through Delightex EDU and Spatial. These technology-enhanced activities required participants not only to operate digital tools but also to apply them pedagogically to support learner interaction, engagement, multimodal learning, and instructional effectiveness within HSK instructional contexts. In the final stages of the intervention, participants integrated technological, pedagogical, and content-related knowledge through the design and presentation of HSK interactive teaching tools as final projects. Through these progressively structured digital tasks, the DTBI intervention operationalized the TPACK framework while promoting instructional creativity, pedagogical adaptability, and learner-centered approaches to HSK instructional design among Thai pre-service Chinese language teachers (Figure 1). Developmental conceptual framework of multimodal digital task-based instruction (DTBI) for enhancing teaching creativity in HSK instructional design (Synthesized by the researcher)
Methodology
Research Design
This study employed an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design to examine the effects of Digital Task-Based Instruction (DTBI) on the development of pedagogical creativity among pre-service Chinese language teachers. The study consisted of two consecutive phases: a quantitative phase followed by a qualitative phase. The quantitative phase adopted a quasi-experimental pretest–posttest control group design involving an experimental group (n = 33) and a control group (n = 34). The experimental group received the DTBI intervention, while the control group received conventional instruction.
To evaluate pedagogical creativity, the study utilized a modified creativity assessment adapted from the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking and contextualized for HSK instructional design and Chinese language teaching practices. The modified TTCT focused on four dimensions of creativity: fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration. Rather than assessing general abstract creativity, the instrument was contextualized to measure participants’ creative capabilities in designing innovative and pedagogically meaningful HSK instructional activities and lesson plans. In addition to the creativity assessment, the final digital-integrated HSK lesson plans designed by participants from both groups were comparatively evaluated to examine differences in the creative quality of instructional design. The qualitative phase subsequently explored participants’ perceptions and experiences regarding the influence of DTBI on their pedagogical creativity through semi-structured interviews conducted with selected participants from the experimental group.
Participants and Sampling
The target population of this study consisted of approximately 2,300 undergraduate students enrolled at the School of Sinology, Mae Fah Luang University, Thailand. The study specifically focused on pre-service Chinese language teachers enrolled in the undergraduate course Innovation and Technology for Learning within the Teaching Chinese Language program. The course is a compulsory subject in the program and focuses on technology integration, instructional design, and digital pedagogical practices relevant to HSK instruction and Chinese language teacher education.
Purposive sampling was employed to recruit participants who met the criteria relevant to the objectives of the study. A total of 67 pre-service Chinese language teachers participated in the study within two existing intact class sections consisting of an experimental group (n = 33) and a control group (n = 34). The course was offered in multiple class sections organized by the university prior to the study. One section was assigned as the experimental group and participated in the DTBI intervention, whereas the other section served as the control group and received conventional instructional practices. Because the groups were pre-existing class sections, random assignment was not feasible within the institutional instructional setting.
The participants were second-year undergraduate students, as the selected course is normally offered during the second year of the Teaching Chinese Language program. First-year students were excluded because they had not yet enrolled in the course, while third- and fourth-year students were excluded because they had already completed the course prior to the study. This selection helped ensure that participants had not previously completed the selected instructional technology course before the intervention.
Participants were selected based on several considerations. First, all participants were enrolled in a teacher education program related to HSK instructional design and Chinese language pedagogy. Second, participants possessed basic digital literacy skills necessary for effective participation in multimodal digital learning activities. Finally, the selected participants were considered appropriate for examining the development of pedagogical creativity within technology-enhanced HSK instructional contexts.
To minimize potential research bias and ensure group comparability, several baseline factors were considered prior to the intervention. Both groups demonstrated relatively comparable Chinese language proficiency and overall academic performance. Chinese language proficiency was compared based on participants’ HSK Level 4 examination records and passing rates, which indicated relatively similar proficiency backgrounds between the two groups. Throughout the intervention, participants designed instructional activities and lesson plans for HSK Level 3 instructional contexts. The experimental group had a mean GPA of approximately 2.96, while the control group demonstrated a comparable mean GPA of approximately 3.07, indicating no substantial academic differences between the two groups prior to the intervention. Furthermore, none of the participants had previously received systematic training in educational technology or multimodal digital instructional design before participating in the study.
Regarding demographic distribution, female participants constituted the majority of both groups, accounting for approximately 65% of the experimental group and 78% of the control group. This distribution reflects the demographic characteristics commonly observed in Teaching Chinese Language (TCL) teacher education programs in Thailand. These considerations helped reduce potential pre-existing differences between the experimental and control groups and enhanced the validity of the quasi-experimental comparison.
Sample Size Determination
An a priori power analysis was conducted using G*Power 3.1 prior to data collection to determine the minimum sample size required for the quantitative analyses. Based on independent-samples t-tests and paired-samples t-tests with a medium effect size (Cohen’s d = 0.50), an alpha level of 0.05, and a desired statistical power of 0.95, the required minimum sample size ranged from 54 to 58 participants depending on the statistical procedure employed.
The final sample of 67 participants, consisting of 33 participants in the experimental group and 34 participants in the control group, exceeded the minimum recommended sample size. Therefore, the study was considered to have sufficient statistical power to detect meaningful differences in pedagogical creativity between the two groups following the DTBI intervention.
Ethical Considerations
All participants voluntarily agreed to participate in the study and provided written informed consent prior to data collection. Participants were also required to maintain at least 90% attendance throughout the intervention period to ensure consistent engagement with the DTBI activities. The Research Ethics Committee of Mae Fah Luang University, Thailand, approved the study and granted a Research Ethics Certificate (EC 25161-24), confirming its compliance with ethical standards for human subjects research, including participant confidentiality, voluntary participation, risk mitigation, and participant welfare.
Instructional Intervention
The instructional intervention in this study was designed based on the principles of multimodal Digital Task-Based Instruction (DTBI) integrated with the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework. The intervention aimed to develop pre-service Chinese language teachers’ digital pedagogical competencies, instructional design skills, pedagogical creativity, and classroom teaching practices within technology-enhanced HSK instructional contexts.
The DTBI intervention was implemented over a 15-week instructional period within the undergraduate course Innovation and Technology for Learning. Throughout the intervention, participants engaged in progressively structured multimodal digital task-based activities designed to develop technological knowledge (TK), pedagogical knowledge (PK), content knowledge (CK), and integrated TPACK competencies relevant to HSK instruction. The intervention included various HSK-oriented instructional activities such as multimedia content creation, interactive worksheet design, interactive video development, gamified HSK learning activities, adaptive assessment design, website development, and immersive digital learning tasks. Various digital tools and platforms were integrated to support multimodal learning, collaborative interaction, instructional creativity, and technology-enhanced HSK teaching practices.
Throughout the intervention, participants collaboratively designed instructional activities and lesson plans targeting HSK Level 3 instructional contexts. The intervention emphasized instructional originality, multimodal integration, learner engagement, pedagogical appropriateness, and technology-supported creativity. Participants continuously refined their lesson plans, digital teaching materials, and instructional prototypes through collaborative learning, reflective activities, and classroom teaching practice. The final stage of the intervention involved the development and presentation of digital-integrated HSK instructional projects. These final instructional products served as authentic representations of participants’ pedagogical creativity, TPACK development, and digital pedagogical competencies developed throughout the DTBI intervention process (Figure 2). Structure of the DTBI intervention program and TPACK-Oriented HSK instructional tasks
Research Instruments
Pedagogical Creativity Test
To evaluate the development of pedagogical creativity, this study utilized a modified creativity assessment adapted from the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT) (Torrance, 2008) and contextualized for HSK instructional design and Teaching Chinese as a Foreign Language (TCFL) contexts. Rather than measuring general abstract creativity, the assessment focused on participants’ ability to generate creative, pedagogically appropriate, and technology-enhanced instructional ideas within authentic HSK teaching scenarios. The assessment framework was developed based on four creativity dimensions derived from Torrance’s conceptualization of creativity: fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration. The instrument transformed these dimensions into context-specific instructional design tasks relevant to HSK teaching practices. The final assessment consisted of three open-ended scenario-based tasks requiring participants to design instructional activities, propose technology-enhanced teaching strategies, and respond to authentic HSK instructional situations. For example, participants were required to redesign conventional HSK instructional activities into more interactive and technology-enhanced learning experiences appropriate for contemporary Chinese language classrooms. A rubric-based scoring system was employed to evaluate participants’ responses across the four creativity dimensions. Fluency referred to the generation of multiple instructional ideas, flexibility to the use of diverse pedagogical approaches, originality to the novelty of instructional and technology integration ideas, and elaboration to the systematic development and organization of instructional designs. Each dimension carried a maximum score of 20 points, resulting in a total score of 80 points. Participants’ responses were independently evaluated by the researcher and two experts specializing in Chinese language pedagogy and educational technology using the same creativity assessment rubric. To establish instrument quality, a pilot study was conducted with ten external pre-service Chinese language teachers who were not involved in the main study. Inter-rater reliability was established based on the independent scoring conducted by the researcher and two experts specializing in Chinese language pedagogy and educational technology. Following a calibration session, the instrument demonstrated strong inter-rater reliability, with Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC) values ranging from 0.81 to 0.89 across the four creativity dimensions. Content validity was further evaluated using the Content Validity Index (CVI), achieving a Scale-Level CVI Average (S-CVI/Ave) of 0.93. To support participant comprehension and reduce language-related ambiguity, all assessment materials were provided bilingually in Chinese and Thai through a forward–backward translation process. Prior to the intervention, participants also received an orientation session explaining the assessment procedures and task requirements.
Semi-Structured Interview Protocol
To gain deeper insights into participants’ experiences and to triangulate the quantitative findings, semi-structured interviews were conducted with selected participants following the completion of the intervention and post-test assessment. A purposive sampling strategy was employed to select 10 participants from the experimental group based on variations in their pedagogical creativity development observed in the quantitative phase. The interview questions focused on participants’ experiences with multimodal digital tasks, technology-enhanced lesson planning, collaborative instructional design activities, and perceptions of how DTBI influenced their pedagogical creativity in HSK instructional design. Sample interview questions included: “How did the digital task-based activities influence your approaches to HSK instructional design?” and “In what ways did technology integration affect your creativity in designing Chinese language learning activities?” Each interview lasted approximately 45–60 minutes and was conducted in the participants’ preferred language (Chinese or Thai). All interviews were audio-recorded with participants’ consent and subsequently transcribed verbatim for analysis. To enhance trustworthiness, member checking was conducted by returning interview summaries and transcripts to participants for verification. In addition, a pilot interview was conducted with two non-participating pre-service Chinese language teachers to refine the clarity and relevance of the interview questions prior to the main data collection process.
HSK Lesson Plan Design Evaluation Rubric
To evaluate the creative quality of participants’ digital-integrated HSK lesson plans, this study employed a rubric-based assessment specifically developed for HSK instructional design within technology-enhanced learning environments. The rubric was designed to evaluate participants’ pedagogical creativity, instructional innovation, multimodal integration, and technology-enhanced lesson design practices in HSK instructional contexts. The rubric framework was developed based on principles of creativity theory, TPACK, constructive alignment, and social constructivism. The evaluation focused on four major dimensions: (1) instructional creativity and innovation, (2) pedagogical appropriateness and HSK content alignment, (3) multimodal and digital integration, and (4) learner engagement and interactivity. Instructional creativity and innovation referred to the originality and innovativeness of HSK learning activities, instructional strategies, and classroom task design. Pedagogical appropriateness and HSK content alignment evaluated the extent to which lesson objectives, instructional activities, and assessment methods were appropriately aligned with HSK learning outcomes and learner characteristics. Multimodal and digital integration assessed the meaningful integration of digital tools, multimedia resources, and technology-enhanced learning activities within the lesson design. Learner engagement and interactivity focused on the extent to which the lesson plan promoted active participation, collaborative learning, interaction, and meaningful learner-centered instructional experiences. Participants from both the experimental and control groups were required to develop final HSK lesson plans targeting HSK Level 3 instructional contexts. The lesson plans included instructional objectives, learning activities, digital learning materials, assessment strategies, and classroom implementation procedures. A five-level rubric-based scoring system ranging from 1 (Beginning) to 5 (Excellent) was employed to evaluate each dimension of the lesson plans. The total possible score was 20 points across the four dimensions. Higher scores indicated stronger demonstration of pedagogical creativity, instructional innovation, and effective technology integration within HSK teaching design. To ensure scoring consistency and evaluation reliability, the lesson plans were independently evaluated by the researcher and two experts specializing in Chinese language pedagogy and educational technology using the same evaluation rubric. The final scores were calculated based on the average scores assigned by the three evaluators. Prior to the evaluation process, a calibration session was conducted to establish shared understanding of the rubric criteria, performance descriptors, and scoring standards (Figure 3). HSK lesson plan design creativity rubric
Data Analysis
The study employed both quantitative and qualitative data analysis procedures to examine the effects of DTBI on the pedagogical creativity development of pre-service Chinese language teachers.
For the pedagogical creativity assessment, quantitative data obtained from the modified TTCT-based creativity test were analyzed using descriptive statistics, paired-samples t-tests, and independent-samples t-tests. Paired-samples t-tests were conducted to compare pre-test and post-test creativity scores within each group, while independent-samples t-tests were employed to compare differences between the experimental and control groups following the intervention. The analyses included both overall creativity scores and the four creativity dimensions of fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration. Dimension-level comparisons were further conducted to identify which creativity dimensions demonstrated the greatest improvement and which dimensions showed relatively limited differences between the two groups following the DTBI intervention.
For the semi-structured interview data, qualitative thematic analysis was employed to analyze participants’ experiences and perceptions regarding DTBI and pedagogical creativity development. Interview transcripts were coded and categorized into themes related to technology integration, instructional creativity, multimodal learning experiences, and HSK instructional design practices. The qualitative findings were used to support and explain the quantitative results obtained during the intervention.
For the HSK lesson plan design evaluation, rubric-based quantitative analysis was conducted using the lesson plan evaluation rubric. Mean scores and standard deviations were calculated for each rubric dimension, including instructional creativity and innovation, pedagogical appropriateness and HSK content alignment, multimodal and digital integration, and learner engagement and interactivity. Independent-samples t-tests were further employed to compare the overall lesson plan performance between the experimental and control groups following the intervention.
Additional interpretive comparisons were also conducted to examine the relative influence of DTBI across different creativity and lesson plan rubric dimensions. The relative DTBI influence labels presented in the findings (e.g., strongest, moderate, minimal, and negligible effect) were descriptively interpreted based on the magnitude of mean differences and statistical significance across dimensions rather than formal effect size classification.
Results and Findings
Results From the Modified TTCT-Based Pedagogical Creativity Assessment
Pre-Test Equivalency
Pre-test Comparison of Pedagogical Creativity Scores
The results indicated no statistically significant difference between the experimental and control groups in their pre-test pedagogical creativity scores (p > 0.05), suggesting that both groups demonstrated relatively comparable levels of pedagogical creativity prior to the intervention.
Within-Group Comparison
Within-Group Comparison of Pedagogical Creativity Scores
The findings revealed a statistically significant improvement in pedagogical creativity within the experimental group following the DTBI intervention (p < 0.001). In contrast, the control group demonstrated a slight decrease in pedagogical creativity scores following conventional instruction, although the decrease was not statistically significant (p > 0.05).
Between-Group Comparison
Post-test Comparison of Pedagogical Creativity Scores
The results demonstrated a statistically significant difference between the experimental and control groups in post-test pedagogical creativity scores (p < 0.001). Participants who received the DTBI intervention achieved substantially higher pedagogical creativity scores compared to those who received conventional instruction.
Dimension-Level Analysis of Fluency, Flexibility, Originality, and Elaboration
Dimension-Level Post-test Comparison of Pedagogical Creativity
The dimension-level analysis revealed that originality demonstrated the greatest difference between the two groups. Participants exposed to DTBI showed stronger ability to generate innovative instructional ideas and integrate technology creatively into HSK teaching activities. Elaboration also demonstrated clear differences between the two groups, suggesting that DTBI supported participants in developing more detailed and systematically organized lesson designs. Flexibility showed moderate differences between the two groups. Participants in the experimental group demonstrated greater variety in instructional approaches and pedagogical strategies, although the differences were less substantial than those observed in originality and elaboration. In contrast, fluency demonstrated the smallest difference and did not reach statistical significance. This finding suggests that both groups were generally capable of generating multiple instructional ideas; however, DTBI appeared to exert greater influence on the quality and innovativeness of instructional design rather than the quantity of ideas generated.
Results From the HSK Lesson Plan Design Assessment
Overall Lesson Plan Performance Comparison
Overall Comparison of HSK Lesson Plan Design Performance
The results demonstrated a statistically significant difference between the experimental and control groups in overall HSK lesson plan design performance (p < 0.001). Participants who experienced the DTBI intervention achieved higher lesson plan evaluation scores compared to participants who received conventional instructional practices. These findings suggest that DTBI positively contributed to the development of pedagogically creative and technology-enhanced HSK lesson design competencies.
Dimension-Level Rubric Analysis
Dimension-Level Comparison of HSK Lesson Plan Design Performance
The dimension-level analysis revealed that multimodal and digital integration demonstrated the largest difference between the two groups, followed by instructional creativity and innovation. Participants exposed to DTBI demonstrated relatively stronger ability to integrate digital tools, multimedia resources, and technology-enhanced instructional activities into HSK lesson design. In addition, the experimental group demonstrated greater originality and innovation in designing instructional activities and classroom tasks.
In contrast, pedagogical appropriateness and HSK content alignment demonstrated only limited differences between the two groups and did not reach statistical significance. This finding suggests that both groups were generally capable of aligning lesson objectives, instructional procedures, and assessment activities with HSK instructional content.
Similarly, learner engagement and interactivity demonstrated negligible differences between the two groups. Both groups were generally able to incorporate basic learner interaction and participation activities within their lesson plans. These findings suggest that DTBI exerted stronger influence on instructional creativity and multimodal technology integration than on basic pedagogical organization and classroom interaction design.
Findings From the Semi-structured Interviews
Theme 1: Development of Pedagogical Creativity Through DTBI
The thematic analysis revealed that DTBI contributed positively to the development of participants’ pedagogical creativity in HSK instructional design. Many participants reported that the multimodal digital tasks encouraged them to explore more diverse and innovative instructional approaches. Participants frequently referred to diversified instructional design (n = 8) and technology-assisted creativity (n = 6) as important outcomes of the intervention.
One participant stated, “Creative activities can make learners more focused and happier.” (S6). Another participant explained, “I found creativity is also part of my professional teaching ability.” (S4). Some participants also mentioned that the intervention encouraged them to redesign conventional HSK teaching activities into more interactive learning experiences.
However, several participants indicated that adapting to creative digital instructional design initially required considerable effort and adjustment. A few participants with weaker technological backgrounds reported difficulty in immediately understanding some digital teaching applications and instructional procedures during the early stages of the intervention.
These findings suggest that DTBI supported participants in moving beyond conventional teacher-centered instruction toward more innovative and learner-centered HSK teaching practices. At the same time, the findings indicate that creativity-oriented digital instructional design may require additional scaffolding and gradual support for some pre-service teachers.
Theme 2: Technology Integration and Digital Pedagogical Confidence
Another major theme emerging from the interviews concerned participants’ growing confidence in technology integration and digital pedagogical practices. Participants frequently reported increased confidence in using digital technologies for instructional purposes (n = 7) and greater familiarity with integrating new applications and digital tools into HSK teaching activities (n = 5).
For example, one participant commented, “I now enjoy exploring new apps for my lessons.” (S3). Several participants stated that they became more comfortable using multimedia tools, gamified learning applications, and online instructional platforms throughout the intervention.
Nevertheless, some participants also experienced technological and instructional difficulties during the intervention. One participant noted, “Sometimes I struggle with unstable Wi-Fi and platform bugs.” (S9). Other participants reported that some application demonstration sessions were conducted too quickly, making it difficult for them to immediately follow the procedures during practical activities. A few participants also mentioned that they occasionally needed additional explanation and repeated demonstrations before they could confidently apply certain digital tools independently.
These findings indicate that DTBI contributed to the development of participants’ technological confidence and digital instructional competence. However, the findings also suggest that differences in digital literacy and technical learning pace should be considered when implementing technology-enhanced instructional interventions.
Theme 3: Increased Engagement and Collaborative Learning Experiences
The interviews further revealed that DTBI enhanced participants’ engagement and collaborative learning experiences throughout the intervention process. Increased engagement (n = 9), innovative teaching experiences (n = 7), and interest stimulation (n = 4) emerged as recurring themes across participants’ reflections.
One participant explained, “I feel more motivated to teach after trying the new approach.” (S1). Another participant stated, “Gamified tasks were really fun to create and to use.” (S4). Similarly, one participant reflected, “Our group worked more closely than in regular classes.” (S3).
At the same time, several participants reported that the frequency of post-class digital tasks and collaborative assignments occasionally created workload pressure and fatigue. Some participants explained that completing multiple digital lesson design activities within limited time periods was challenging, especially when group coordination and technology preparation were required simultaneously.
These findings suggest that the multimodal and task-based nature of DTBI promoted active participation, collaborative interaction, and stronger engagement in instructional design activities. However, the findings also indicate that task frequency and workload management should be carefully balanced to avoid excessive learning pressure among pre-service teachers.
Theme 4: Professional Growth and Shifts in Teaching Perspectives
The final theme reflected participants’ professional growth and changing perspectives toward HSK teaching and instructional design. Several participants reported increased professional confidence (n = 7), conceptual shifts regarding teaching practices (n = 6), and stronger willingness to adopt innovative teaching approaches (n = 6).
One participant stated, “Now I see myself more as a creative educator, not just a deliverer.” (S2). Another participant reflected, “I feel more confident to try new things in my future classes.” (S8).
However, not all participants adapted to the intervention at the same pace. Some participants with weaker instructional or technological foundations reported that a single classroom explanation was sometimes insufficient for them to fully understand complex digital teaching procedures or lesson design expectations. One participant noted, “It was helpful, but I still need more guidance step by step.” (S7). Several participants also expressed the need for additional examples, repeated demonstrations, and slower instructional guidance during some technology-related activities.
These findings indicate that DTBI not only influenced participants’ instructional creativity and technology integration practices, but also contributed to the development of their professional identity and teaching perspectives. At the same time, the findings highlight the importance of instructional scaffolding, differentiated support, and gradual guidance during technology-enhanced teacher education interventions.
Discussion
Discussion of Pedagogical Creativity Development
The findings of the present study demonstrated that DTBI positively contributed to the development of pedagogical creativity among pre-service Chinese language teachers. The quantitative findings revealed that the experimental group achieved significantly higher pedagogical creativity scores compared to the control group, particularly in the dimensions of originality and elaboration. These findings suggest that DTBI was more effective in enhancing the quality, innovativeness, and refinement of instructional design rather than merely increasing the quantity of instructional ideas generated. These findings are consistent with previous studies suggesting that technology-enhanced instructional environments may positively influence pedagogical creativity and instructional innovation among educators (Henriksen et al., 2016).
Among the four creativity dimensions, originality demonstrated the strongest improvement following the intervention. One possible explanation is that the multimodal and task-based structure of DTBI encouraged participants to redesign traditional HSK instructional activities using more innovative and technology-enhanced approaches. Participants were frequently required to solve authentic instructional problems, integrate digital applications, and create learner-centered teaching activities, which may have stimulated divergent pedagogical thinking and instructional experimentation. This finding is consistent with Torrance’s (2008) conceptualization of creativity, which emphasizes originality as the ability to generate novel and meaningful ideas within problem-solving contexts. This finding also aligns with previous creativity research suggesting that authentic problem-solving and instructional constraints may stimulate originality and innovative pedagogical thinking within teacher education contexts (Beghetto, 2019).
The findings also align with constructivist learning perspectives, which emphasize active knowledge construction through authentic learning experiences and collaborative problem solving (Vygotsky, 1978). Through DTBI, participants were not passive recipients of instructional knowledge but active designers of learning experiences. The intervention provided opportunities for participants to explore, revise, and reconstruct instructional ideas through multimodal digital tasks and collaborative lesson design activities. Similarly, active learning principles may further explain why participants demonstrated stronger elaboration and instructional refinement during the intervention process. Interactive multimodal learning environments may further support active cognitive engagement and collaborative instructional experimentation among learners (Moreno & Mayer, 2007).
In contrast, fluency demonstrated relatively limited differences between the experimental and control groups and did not reach statistical significance. Unlike originality and elaboration, fluency primarily concerns the quantity of ideas generated rather than the innovativeness or pedagogical sophistication of those ideas. One possible explanation is that both groups were generally capable of generating multiple instructional activities due to their existing teacher education background and prior exposure to HSK instructional planning. However, DTBI appeared to exert stronger influence on improving the quality and pedagogical creativity of instructional design rather than increasing the number of instructional responses produced by participants. This finding may support previous creativity research suggesting that originality and elaboration may develop differently from fluency within divergent thinking and instructional problem-solving contexts (Runco & Acar, 2012).
Discussion of Multimodal and Technology Integration
The findings from the HSK lesson plan assessment revealed that multimodal and digital integration demonstrated the strongest differences between the experimental and control groups. Participants exposed to DTBI showed greater ability to integrate digital tools, multimedia resources, and technology-enhanced learning activities into HSK instructional design (Yang et al., 2025). These findings suggest that DTBI effectively supported the development of digital pedagogical competence among pre-service Chinese language teachers. These findings are consistent with previous studies indicating that technology-enhanced and multimodal instructional environments may positively support digital pedagogical competence and instructional innovation among pre-service teachers (Chai et al., 2013; Tondeur et al., 2012).
One possible explanation is that DTBI required participants to engage continuously with multimodal instructional tasks involving digital applications, multimedia resources, collaborative activities, and interactive lesson design. Repeated exposure to technology-enhanced instructional activities may have increased participants’ familiarity and confidence in integrating digital tools into teaching practices. The interview findings further supported this interpretation, as several participants reported increased confidence in using new applications and digital teaching tools throughout the intervention. Previous studies have similarly suggested that repeated engagement with technology-enhanced instructional practices may strengthen teachers’ confidence and readiness to integrate digital technologies into classroom instruction (Instefjord & Munthe, 2017).
The findings are consistent with the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework proposed by Mishra and Koehler (2006), which emphasizes the integration of technological knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and content knowledge within instructional practice. Through DTBI, participants appeared to develop stronger ability to combine HSK instructional content with appropriate pedagogical strategies and digital learning technologies within authentic lesson design contexts. This finding also aligns with previous TPACK-related studies suggesting that authentic technology integration experiences may strengthen pre-service teachers’ ability to connect pedagogy, content knowledge, and digital instructional tools within lesson design activities (Chai et al., 2013).
Interestingly, pedagogical appropriateness and HSK content alignment demonstrated only limited differences between the two groups and did not reach statistical significance. One possible explanation is that both groups were enrolled in the same Teaching Chinese Language program and had already received similar foundational pedagogical training prior to the intervention. As a result, both groups were generally capable of aligning lesson objectives, instructional procedures, and assessment activities with HSK instructional requirements. DTBI therefore appeared to contribute more strongly to instructional innovation and multimodal integration rather than basic pedagogical organization. This finding may suggest that foundational pedagogical competence develops through broader teacher education experiences, whereas multimodal and technology-enhanced instructional creativity may require more specialized intervention and practical technology integration opportunities.
Similarly, learner engagement and interactivity demonstrated negligible differences between the two groups. This finding may suggest that both groups were already familiar with incorporating basic participation activities, group discussion, and classroom interaction strategies within lesson planning practices. However, DTBI appeared to provide stronger support for multimodal instructional creativity and technology-enhanced pedagogy rather than fundamentally changing participants’ understanding of learner interaction design. This finding partially differs from some technology-enhanced learning studies that reported substantial increases in learner engagement following digital instructional interventions, possibly because both groups in the present study already possessed basic collaborative instructional experience prior to the intervention (Bond et al., 2020).
Discussion of Collaborative Learning, Motivation, and Professional Transformation
The qualitative findings revealed that DTBI positively influenced participants’ engagement, collaborative learning experiences, instructional motivation, and professional confidence throughout the intervention. Many participants described the gamified and task-based learning activities as interactive, motivating, and enjoyable (Yang & Yanchinda, 2024). Collaborative lesson planning activities and group-based instructional tasks appeared to encourage stronger participation, peer interaction, and shared instructional problem solving during the learning process. Participants also reported greater confidence in experimenting with new instructional approaches and digital teaching tools following the intervention. These findings suggest that DTBI may contribute not only to instructional engagement, but also to broader professional growth among pre-service Chinese language teachers.
One possible explanation is that gamification and collaborative learning elements may increase learners’ sense of participation, challenge, achievement, and social interaction within instructional activities. Consistent with Self-Determination Theory, gamified instructional activities may support learners’ motivation by strengthening autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Through collaborative digital lesson design and interactive instructional tasks, participants were encouraged to become more actively involved in instructional experimentation and pedagogical decision-making processes. Previous studies have similarly suggested that collaborative and technology-enhanced learning environments may positively influence learner engagement, instructional participation, and motivational development within teacher education contexts (Bond et al., 2020).
The findings also revealed important changes in participants’ professional identity and teaching perspectives. Several participants reported that the intervention encouraged them to view themselves not only as knowledge transmitters, but also as creative instructional designers and facilitators of learning experiences. From a constructivist perspective, teachers play important roles in facilitating active learning, collaboration, and knowledge construction rather than merely delivering information (Vygotsky, 1978). Through DTBI, participants were repeatedly engaged in multimodal lesson redesign, collaborative instructional planning, and technology-enhanced teaching experimentation, which may have encouraged deeper reflection on their instructional roles and pedagogical beliefs. These findings align with previous studies suggesting that innovative instructional experiences and reflective teaching practices may contribute to teacher identity development and increased professional confidence among pre-service teachers (Beijaard et al., 2004).
At the same time, the findings also revealed several implementation challenges associated with the intervention process. Some participants reported workload pressure and fatigue resulting from the frequency of post-class digital tasks and collaborative assignments. Other participants indicated that some application demonstration sessions were conducted too quickly, making it difficult for them to immediately understand and apply certain digital teaching procedures. In addition, participants with weaker technological backgrounds occasionally required repeated explanations and additional instructional support before they could independently apply some digital tools. These findings suggest that although DTBI may positively support instructional creativity and digital pedagogical development, differences in technological readiness and cognitive processing may influence participants’ adaptation to technology-enhanced instructional environments.
The findings therefore highlight the importance of balanced workload management, gradual instructional scaffolding, repeated technological demonstrations, and differentiated instructional support during DTBI implementation. Excessive task frequency or insufficient scaffolding may create learning pressure for some pre-service teachers, particularly those with limited prior technological experience. Nevertheless, the overall findings suggest that DTBI may contribute not only to pedagogical creativity and instructional innovation, but also to the development of reflective, collaborative, and technology-confident teacher identities among pre-service Chinese language teachers.
Research Limitations and Future Directions
Despite the meaningful findings of the present study, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the study was conducted within a single university context involving pre-service Chinese language teachers enrolled in one Teaching Chinese Language program in Thailand. Although the findings provide valuable insights into the effects of DTBI on pedagogical creativity and digital pedagogical development, the results may not be fully generalizable to other educational contexts, institutions, or teacher education programs with different instructional environments and learner characteristics.
Second, the intervention was conducted over a 15-week period within one academic semester. While the findings demonstrated positive short-term effects on pedagogical creativity, multimodal instructional design, and professional confidence, the long-term sustainability of these developments remains unclear. Future longitudinal studies may therefore be beneficial in examining whether the observed improvements in pedagogical creativity and digital instructional competence can be maintained over extended teaching practice and professional development periods.
Third, the qualitative findings revealed differences in participants’ technological readiness, learning pace, and adaptation to technology-enhanced instructional activities. Some participants required additional explanations, repeated demonstrations, and greater instructional scaffolding during digital task implementation. These findings suggest that individual differences in technological confidence and prior digital experience may influence participants’ engagement with DTBI-based instructional activities. Future studies may therefore further investigate how technological readiness, digital literacy, and cognitive load influence the effectiveness of DTBI interventions in teacher education contexts.
Finally, the present study primarily focused on pedagogical creativity development within HSK instructional design contexts among pre-service Chinese language teachers. Future research may extend the investigation to other language learning contexts, in-service teacher populations, cross-cultural educational environments, and larger participant samples in order to further examine the broader applicability and adaptability of DTBI in technology-enhanced teacher education.
Conclusion
The present study investigated the effects of Digital Task-Based Instruction (DTBI) on the pedagogical creativity development of pre-service Chinese language teachers within HSK instructional design contexts. Using a mixed-methods quasi-experimental design, the study examined the influence of DTBI on pedagogical creativity, multimodal lesson design, digital pedagogical competence, collaborative learning experiences, and professional identity development.
The findings demonstrated that participants who experienced DTBI achieved significantly higher pedagogical creativity and multimodal lesson design performance compared to those who received conventional instructional approaches. In particular, originality, elaboration, and multimodal integration demonstrated the strongest improvements, suggesting that DTBI was more effective in enhancing the quality, innovativeness, and refinement of instructional design rather than merely increasing the quantity of instructional ideas generated.
The qualitative findings further revealed positive changes in participants’ instructional engagement, digital pedagogical confidence, collaborative learning experiences, and professional identity transformation. Many participants reported increased confidence in integrating digital tools into HSK teaching activities and viewed themselves as more reflective, innovative, and learner-centered educators following the intervention. At the same time, the findings also revealed several implementation challenges, including workload pressure, technological readiness differences, and the need for additional instructional scaffolding during digital task implementation.
The study also provides practical implications for Chinese language teacher education and instructional policy development. The findings suggest that future Chinese language teacher training programs should place greater emphasis on pedagogical creativity, multimodal instructional design, digital pedagogical competence, and technology-enhanced instructional innovation. In addition, balanced workload management, gradual technological scaffolding, and sufficient instructional support may be important considerations for future DTBI implementation within teacher education contexts.
Footnotes
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the use of AI-assisted language tools, such as ChatGPT and Grammarly, to improve grammar accuracy and refine minor aspects of academic expression during the manuscript editing process. All research design, theoretical development, data collection, data analysis, interpretations, and final decisions were solely made by the authors. No AI tools were used for generating research ideas, analyzing data, or drawing conclusions.
Ethical Considerations
This study followed the ethical research guidelines of Thailand, including the Thailand National Guidelines for Ethics in Research Involving Humans, and was conducted in accordance with ethical research practices. All research personnel involved in data collection and analysis received formal training in research ethics and held certified credentials. The Research Ethics Committee of Mae Fah Luang University, Thailand, approved the study and granted a Research Ethics Certificate (EC 25161-24), confirming its compliance with ethical standards for human subjects’ research, including data confidentiality, risk mitigation, and participant welfare.
Consent to Participate
Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their involvement in the study. Participants signed informed consent regarding the publication of their anonymized data.
Author Contribution
Author 1: Theoretical and methodological framework, study conception and design, research instrument development, data analysis and interpretation, draft manuscript preparation, reviewing the results, and approving the final version of the manuscript. Author 2: Participant recruitment, data collection, proofreading, providing constructive feedback, reviewing the results, and approving the final version of the manuscript.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Data Availability Statement
The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Due to privacy concerns and institutional restrictions, the raw data cannot be publicly shared.