Aligning Chinese Language Instruction to the Heritage-Based Curriculum: A Pedagogical Framework for Zimbabwean Education System

Abstract

This study proposes a pedagogical framework for aligning Chinese language instruction into Zimbabwe’s Heritage Based Curriculum, in line with language education and developmental goals of Education 5.0. As China-Zimbabwe relations deepen, the demand for Chinese language education has grown across all educational levels. However, the current pedagogical approaches often lack contextual relevance, failing to incorporate Zimbabwe’s Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Heritage into teaching and learning. This research investigates how Chinese language instruction can be effectively localized to resonate with Zimbabwean learners while promoting Intercultural competence. Drawing on qualitative data from educators, curriculum developers, and students, the study identifies key challenges and seeks to propose a pedagogical framework grounded in intercultural, bilingual, and task-based approaches. The findings highlight the potential of a Heritage Based Curriculum that not only enhances language acquisition but also reinforces a learner that knows, understands, values and demonstrates the preservation of indigenous knowledge as a result of their learning experiences. The national identity will position Zimbabwean learners as culturally grounded yet globally competent citizens. The study contributes to the growing discourse on curriculum indigenization, foreign language education, and postcolonial pedagogies in Africa.

Introduction

The global rise of China as a political, economic, and cultural power has stimulated increasing interest in Chinese language teaching across the world (Ding & Saunders, 2006). In Africa, this interest has been particularly pronounced, as nations seek to strengthen diplomatic and economic ties with China through education and cultural exchange initiatives (Krukowska, 2024). Zimbabwe, in alignment with its Heritage-Based Curriculum and the transformative goals of Education 5.0, has integrated Mandarin Chinese into its primary, secondary, and tertiary education systems. This shift reflects broader global trends while also responding to national imperatives for innovation, industrialization, and internationalization of education (Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Innovation, Science and Technology Development, 2019).

The Heritage-Based Curriculum tenents were initially introduced into the curriculum framework in 2015 under the Competency-Based Curriculum. The Competency Based Curriculum refers to a curriculum that emphasizes what learners are expected to do rather than focusing primarily on what they are expected to know (Jansen, 1998; Kabombwe & Mulenga, 2019). Instead of emphasizing content coverage, it means that students must acquire and then apply knowledge, skills, values and attitudes to solve real problems they face in their everyday lives. The Competency-Based curriculum was supported by CALA (Continuous Assessment Learning Activities) which was a learner assessment program via giving tasks and projects to self-research and complete (Curriculum Framework for Primary and Secondary Education et al., 2014). The projects were in all clusters of subjects and encouraged the students to identify and solve problems within their immediate environment, using available resources.

The Competency-Based curriculum was later revised in the 2024 curriculum review and became the Heritage-Based Curriculum. The changes in curriculum emphasised on the development of learners’ cultural identity, national pride, and multilingual competences, by centering indigenous knowledge systems and languages in the education system (Dube & Tshuma, 2025). The inclusion of Chinese language instruction within the two curriculum frameworks present both opportunities and challenges. On one hand, it enhances Zimbabwe’s geopolitical and economic engagement with China through soft power mechanisms like language and culture (Ncube, 2025). Enabling the ease of doing business and trade and strengthening ties between the two countries. On the other hand, it raises pedagogical, cultural, and policy-related questions regarding how non-indigenous, foreign language can be taught in ways that complement rather than undermine the country’s heritage-based educational ethos (Li, 2021), posits that incorporating local culture into foreign language instruction widens students’ horizons and cultivates their language proficiency. It helps to enhance their cultural awareness, strengthen their confidence, and realize shared appreciation of civilization with the people from other cultural backgrounds.

This research study seeks to propose a pedagogical framework for aligning Chinese language instruction into Zimbabwe’s Heritage-Based Curriculum. It situates the discussion within the broader context of language policy in education, curriculum reform, and cultural diplomacy. The research comes amid several debates surrounding the instruction of local languages in Zimbabwe. The framework draws on principles of culturally responsive pedagogy, multilingual education, and comparative language instruction models to ensure that Chinese language learning not only aligns with national education goals, but also supports learners’ cognitive, cultural, and communicative development.

Development of Chinese Language in Zimbabwe

China and Zimbabwe have had an existing relationship of mutual benefit, dating back to Zimbabwe’s liberation struggle in the 1970s. The dubbed Sino-Zim union has not only been driven by practical factors like assistance during the liberation war but has also been hinged on foreign and trade policies. China and Zimbabwe have been partners with a shared future in pursuing economic development and national rejuvenation from far aback. The countries cooperation, has increasingly become based on shared experiences, historic missions, and common ideas. The Sino-Zim relations have now matured, graduating beyond the all-weather friendship to strategic comprehensive partnerships.

A joint statement by the People’s Republic of China and the Republic of Zimbabwe sums this up; ‘since the establishment of the Comprehensive Strategic Partnership of Cooperation, the two countries have maintained high-level development of bilateral relations, deepened traditional friendship, further strengthened political mutual trust, firmly supported each other on issues of core interests, achieved fruitful outcomes in their practical cooperation, and coordinated closely on international affairs, setting a fine example of China-Africa friendship and South-South cooperation’ (Joint Statement Between the People’s Republic of China and the Republic of Zimbabwe on Deepening and Enhancing the Comprehensive Strategic Partnership of Cooperation and Building a High-Level China-Zimbabwe Community with a Shared Future, 2024).

It is against this backdrop that the teaching and learning of Chinese language has been adopted in Zimbabwe. Subsequently In recent years, the teaching and learning of the Chinese language has gained significant traction globally, with Africa experiencing a rapid expansion of Chinese language programs. Confucius Institutes and Sino-Africa bilateral educational cooperation have been instrumental in the spread of teaching and learning of Chinese language and culture (Li S, 2024). Zimbabwe is no exception, as the strategic partnership between Zimbabwe and China positively improves, it has led to an increased demand for Chinese language proficiency in sectors such as business, diplomacy, and education (Mangena, 2025). Chinese language and culture instruction has become popular with several Zimbabwean educational institutions adopting the teaching of the language. This has, marked a new phase in linguistic and cultural exchange between the two countries.

The Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education in Zimbabwe has crafted a language teaching curriculum guide that offers teaching instruction of 13 languages with Chinese Language as part of the languages. This notes that Chinese language can now formally be taught in Zimbabwe’s public/government schools from Primary to Secondary level. Private schools, Teacher colleges and Institutes of Higher learning in Zimbabwe have also engaged the teaching of Chinese language and culture, with the University of Zimbabwe offering Chinese language as a University Wide module open for learning to all Undergraduate students at the University, albeit the degree program.

Bourdieu (1991) considers language competency as linguistic capital. Bourdieu posits that language must not be treated merely as a tool for communication but a medium through which power is negotiated and social structures are maintained. The value and power that language holds in social interactions, may influence an individual’s social status, opportunities, and identity. The knowledge, skills, and abilities that an individual possesses in a particular language, which can greatly influence their opportunities and success in both personal and professional spheres Martinaj, 2020. Lid (2018) further reiterate that just as goods and services are exchanged in economic markets, linguistic exchanges occur within social spaces where certain languages or dialects are traded for social advantages, such as prestige, authority, or economic benefits. In Zimbabwe’s geopolitical and economic context, the Chinese language has asserted a function as a high-value asset. The language proficiency gives ease of doing business between Zimbabwe and China and not necessarily as a tool for neo-colonialism. China is currently Zimbabwe’s largest foreign direct investor and a key partner in economic investment and development (Zimbabwe Investment Development Agency, 2024).

The growing economy of China has also played a major role in the ever-increasing need for foreigners to learn the Chinese language. Chinese language acquisition in Zimbabwe is not merely an academic exercise but a direct form of capacity-building, that will equip learners with the capital to engage effectively in sectors vital to national development. This paper is grounded in a postcolonial theoretical perspective (Mbembe, 2001; Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2013), which reframes decolonization not as isolation but a strategic engagement. The adoption of Chinese language and culture into the formal curriculum can be viewed as an act of sovereign choice that necessitates the aid of mutual development between China and Zimbabwe. It allows Zimbabwe to build capacity through South-South cooperation, accessing tools for innovation and industrialization (as per Education 5.0) without perpetuating a colonial linguistic hierarchy.

Byram’s (1997) model of Intercultural Communicative Competence (ICC) framework fosters learners’ ability to navigate and mediate between cultures a vital skill in the age of globalization. The objective is not acculturation but the development of a ‘critical intercultural speaker.’ This learner acquires the skills to analyze, compare, and mediate between their own heritage and Chinese culture. This stands in contrast to the historical imposition of European languages hinged on colonialism in, which emphasised language skills for advancement of colonial objectives (Shakib, 2011). It is therefore important that the teaching and learning pedagogy, be bidirectional, for every Chinese cultural concept introduced, a parallel Zimbabwean concept is examined. This ensures that the HBC remains the foundational cultural core, while Chinese proficiency serves as a bridge for dialogue, not a tool for assimilation.

Zimbabwe’s Education 5.0 and Heritage-Based Learning

The growing discourse of Chinese language education in Zimbabwe must be contextualized within the broader national effort to decolonize and indigenize the curriculum through the implementation of the Education 5.0 model. Introduced in 2018, Education 5.0 redefines the purpose of education as not only centered on teaching and research but also on community service, innovation, and industrialization, with the ultimate goal of transforming the economy and uplifting societal standards (Zimbabwe Education 5.0 Doctrine, 2018). This five-pillar model seeks to bridge the gap between academic institutions and the socio-economic needs of the nation by grounding learning in Zimbabwean identity, heritage, and values (Muzira & Maupa, 2020).

One of the central objectives of Education 5.0 is to align Zimbabwe’s educational practices with global development priorities, particularly the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Specifically, SDG 9, which emphasizes industry, innovation, and infrastructure, (United Nations Development Programme, 2024) resonates with Zimbabwe’s focus on promoting industrialization through education. To achieve this, the country has adopted a heritage-based approach to learning, where learners are encouraged to interact with and draw knowledge from their immediate environments (Katiyo, 2024). For example, in the agriculture module, students engage in hands-on projects that require them to identify real-world challenges such as those posed by climate change and propose innovative solutions. Given Zimbabwe’s largely agrarian economy and the impacts of environmental degradation, this approach equips learners with practical skills and the mindset to respond to national development needs. In this context, integrating Chinese language instruction is not merely about adding a foreign language to the curriculum. Rather, it is about embedding global competencies into a localized educational framework, ensuring that learners can operate both within their cultural heritage and in the international arena. The Chinese language, therefore, becomes a tool for both cultural diplomacy and practical engagement with global economies.

The Heritage-Based Curriculum in Zimbabwe: Context, Comparisons, and Challenges

The Heritage-Based Curriculum (HBC) in Zimbabwe represents a transformative shift in educational philosophy—one that aims to decolonize learning by rooting knowledge production and acquisition in local culture, history, and indigenous knowledge systems. Implemented as part of the broader Education 5.0 agenda, HBC is designed to empower learners to critically engage with their immediate environment, extract value from their heritage, and contribute to national development through practical, culturally relevant competencies (Circular 4 of 2024 on Heritage-Based Curriculum 2024–2030).

The Zimbabwean HBC draws inspiration from the Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC) model, but it distinguishes itself by explicitly emphasizing cultural pride, national consciousness, and self-sustenance in the process of education. Where the Competency-Based Curriculum emphasized on a learners exit profile as an innovator and entrepreneur through practicalities like CALA (Shinda & Banda, 2024), HBC seeks the same whilst emphasizing leaning and aligning into one’s Heritage. Learners are encouraged to use local languages, traditions, crafts, agriculture, and community-based practices as learning resources (Sunzuma et al., 2025). Vocational training and technological proficiency are prioritized as tools for transforming traditional knowledge into modern innovation, reflecting a fusion of African epistemologies with global development goals such as AU Agenda 2063 and UN SDG 9.

Zimbabwe is not alone in its adoption of heritage-based approaches. Countries like Kenya, through its Competency-Based Curriculum, and South Africa, with its Life Orientation and indigenous knowledge systems components, have begun embedding local content and African philosophies such as Ubuntu into their curricula. Beyond Africa, New Zealand’s integration of Māori knowledge (Mātauranga Māori) into its national education system, and Canada’s Indigenous-focused programming, offer compelling examples of how cultural preservation and identity-building can coexist with global educational standards. These comparisons illustrate that heritage-based curricula are not anti-modern, but rather, they redefine modernity through cultural inclusiveness and contextual relevance.

In Zimbabwe, the reception of HBC has been mixed but evolving. Proponents argue that it fosters educational relevance, reduces dependency on Western content, and empowers learners with practical life skills rooted in their realities (Ndlovu-Gatsheni, 2020). Critics, however, point to challenges such as resource shortages, inconsistent teacher training, and the difficulty of developing standardized heritage-based content across diverse ethnic groups, despite these challenges, the HBC is widely acknowledged as a bold attempt to realign education with national identity and local agency (Chitamba & Chitamba, 2025).

However, foreign language education particularly the teaching of Chinese has largely remained outside curriculum frameworks in Zimbabwe. To date the teaching of Chinese Language in public schools of Zimbabwe has stalled in progress albeit implementation of a 2015-2024 curriculum. The government has not invested in intensified efforts to train local teachers to feed into the vast public schools sector, material production has not been encouraged and ZIMSEC has not come up with a National examination framework like in other subjects. Instructional materials are often imported directly from China, with limited adaptation to Zimbabwean cultural realities. Teaching approaches prioritize rote memorization and Chinese cultural references, making little room for localized content or pedagogical adaptation (Mkhumbuleni, 2023). This mainly is due to training of Chinese language instructors in China versus in Zimbabwe. The Confucius Institute University of Zimbabwe is making intensified efforts to train local Chinese language teachers but the gap is still wide. This disconnect not only undermines learner engagement but also misses an opportunity to use Chinese language education as a bridge between local identity and global interaction. Kramsch, (2013) advocates for the development of learners with an intercultural competence that will neither short change their own culture nor the target culture, but cultivate them into cultural mediators in a global world.

Thus, this study seeks to interrogate how Chinese language instruction in Zimbabwe can be more effectively aligned with the Heritage-Based Curriculum, ensuring that learners are not simply passive consumers of foreign knowledge, but active agents in constructing bilingual and bicultural competencies rooted in both Zimbabwean heritage and global citizenship. The research aims to develop contextualized teaching models that incorporate local history, metaphors, values, and learning styles into Chinese language pedagogy, thereby fostering culturally responsive foreign language acquisition. This paper, therefore, not only investigates this pedagogical disconnect but also proposes a concrete framework for localizing Chinese language instruction to serve the dual aims of linguistic proficiency and cultural preservation within Zimbabwe’s Education 5.0 paradigm.

Literature Review

The integration of Chinese language instruction into Zimbabwe’s education system, especially within the framework of a Heritage-Based Curriculum (HBC), necessitates a deep understanding of foreign language acquisition, cultural identity, and localized pedagogical practices. This review explores the evolution and significance of HBC in Zimbabwe, the global and local dynamics of Chinese language instruction, and the challenges and opportunities in aligning foreign language teaching with national cultural imperatives. It is guided by constructivist curriculum theory and Freire’s (1970) principles of critical pedagogy, which emphasize education as a practice of freedom that must be rooted in learners’ cultural contexts.

The Heritage-Based Curriculum in Context

The Heritage-Based Curriculum (HBC) represents a deliberate shift in educational paradigms toward the recognition and incorporation of indigenous knowledge, local languages, and cultural values. UNESCO (2024) emphasizes that integrating living heritage into education fosters social and economic sustainability by equipping learners with skills to contribute meaningfully to their communities, thus reducing rural-to-urban migration. This integration, as guided by the 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage, is central to promoting Education for Sustainable Development (ESD).

UNESCO encourages the use of culturally responsive methods such as storytelling, song, dramatic performance, and communal learning to incorporate heritage knowledge into classroom practice. These approaches provide meaningful opportunities for identity construction, intergenerational knowledge transfer, and critical reflection on cultural continuity. Asia-Pacific guidelines, for example, recommend the use of traditional arts and oral narratives in language learning a strategy readily adaptable to African contexts.

In Zimbabwe, the HBC forms a cornerstone of Education 5.0, which expands the traditional teaching-research-extension triad to include innovation and industrialization (Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science and Technology Development, 2019). It emphasizes contextualized learning through indigenous knowledge systems, national languages, and cultural revitalization. According to Tarugarira (2025), the curriculum is a corrective response to the continued dominance of colonial educational frameworks, aiming to nurture pride, agency, and relevance among learners.

A compelling example of this approach is the comparative use of ancient writing systems in Zimbabwe and China to support both heritage awareness and cross-cultural language learning. Chinese writing, with origins in pictorial representations of daily life (e.g., 山 for “mountain”), retains visual links to its cultural roots (Tian et al., 2023; Wei, 2014). Similarly, Zimbabwean rock art, dating back to the Late Stone Age, reflects communal life, folklore, and spirituality (Walker, 1994). Integrating such parallels into Chinese language instruction can deepen learners’ appreciation for both their own and others’ cultural heritages, anchoring foreign language learning in familiar semiotic and epistemological frameworks.

Language Learning and Cultural Identity

Language is both a communicative tool and a carrier of cultural meaning. Kramsch (1998) contends that language learning inherently involves engagement with the cultural norms, practices, and worldview embedded in that language. An intercultural communicative competence (ICC) framework fosters learners’ ability to navigate and mediate between cultures a vital skill in the age of globalization.

In African educational settings, scholars such as Bamgbose (2000) and Makoni and Pennycook (2005) stress the need to integrate local languages and cultural content into education as a form of cultural resistance and epistemological empowerment. Language instruction that ignores learners’ cultural backgrounds may contribute to identity alienation and linguistic imperialism. Conversely, aligning language teaching with cultural heritage reinforces learners’ connection to their communities and enhances cognitive engagement.

Freire (1970) views that education must be dialogic and liberatory, allowing learners to critically engage with their lived experiences through language. In the case of Chinese language teaching in Zimbabwe, the research advocates for a Chinese language speaker that can relate and discuss one’s tradition and culture in a foreign language. This serves to maintain one’s culture in a foreign language environment and to also negotiate intercultural communication. It also draws from Bhabha’s (1994) concept of cultural hybridity, which sees identity as negotiated in the “third space” between cultures making the ICC model particularly relevant in Chinese language education in Africa.

Chinese Language Teaching in Africa and Zimbabwe

The past two decades have seen significant growth in Chinese language education across Africa, largely through the establishment of Confucius Institutes and Chinese-funded language programs (Zhao & Huang, 2010). These initiatives support China’s strategic interests in Africa, including economic diplomacy and soft power projection. In Zimbabwe, Chinese is offered at major institutions such as the University of Zimbabwe and teacher training colleges like Morgan Zintech and Hillside teachers college. The instruction of the language is expanding into primary and secondary schools. The growing demand is linked to business, tourism, and diplomatic opportunities. However, much of the curriculum remains externally designed, with a strong focus on Mandarin proficiency and Han cultural promotion. Nyamnjoh (2005) critiques this top-down educational export, arguing that it lacks contextual sensitivity and often disregards the sociocultural realities of African learners. As such, there is a risk of foreign language instruction becoming detached from learners’ lived experiences, reinforcing notions of cultural inferiority and educational dependency. This calls for urgent reform to localize foreign language pedagogy, aligning it with national goals and cultural narratives.

Indigenizing Foreign Language Pedagogy

Curriculum indigenization is a transformative process that reconfigures both what is taught and how it is taught to reflect local knowledge systems, values, and worldviews (Boer & Fry, 2025). Storytelling, communal pedagogies, and metaphoric reasoning are crucial in creating culturally resonant learning environments. Applied to Chinese language instruction, this might involve using Zimbabwean idioms or proverbs to explain Chinese expressions, drawing parallels between Shona/Ndebele kinship systems and those in Chinese culture, or teaching Chinese characters through stories that echo Zimbabwean oral traditions. These culturally grounded practices not only enhance learner engagement and comprehension but also affirm indigenous ways of knowing as legitimate components of formal education.

Teacher agency plays a pivotal role in this process. Vavrus and Bartlett (2012) advocate for localized teacher training programs that empower educators to co-create curricula with communities. In Zimbabwe, this could involve professional development workshops on intercultural communicative competence and heritage-responsive pedagogy, supported by locally relevant instructional materials, nevertheless, challenges remain. The global nature of Chinese instruction, often benchmarked against standardized exams like the HSK, may resist localization. Teachers often lack training in intercultural and heritage-responsive pedagogy, and teaching materials are rarely adapted to local contexts. Overcoming these obstacles requires innovation in curriculum design, resource development, multilingual content creation (e.g., Chinese–Shona–English storybooks), and teacher education reforms.

Comparative Perspectives and Global Lessons

Other countries offer models that Zimbabwe can draw upon. In New Zealand, the integration of the Māori language into mainstream education is a cornerstone of cultural preservation and national identity (Bishop, 2003). Similarly, South Korea and Japan promote heritage education alongside global language instruction to balance modernity with tradition. In Ghana, the integration of Akan proverbs and folk narratives into English instruction has shown positive impacts on literacy and identity development (Amponsah, 2023). These international examples suggest that heritage-based language instruction is not inherently at odds with global language goals. Instead, it can serve as a culturally anchored platform for global engagement, provided it is thoughtfully implemented through collaborative curriculum design and sustainable teacher support systems.

Despite growing interest in both Chinese language education in Africa and heritage-based education in Zimbabwe, there remains a significant gap in scholarship that examines their intersection. Few studies explore how Chinese instruction can support Zimbabwean educational objectives under Education 5.0 or how heritage-based teaching strategies might enhance language acquisition and cultural relevance. There is also limited research on the longitudinal impact of heritage-integrated foreign language education on learners’ identity development and language retention. The lack of documented best practices for adapting Chinese curricula to African contexts further highlights the need for contextualized pedagogical frameworks, culturally relevant resources, and learner centered approaches that reflect Zimbabwe’s educational aspirations. Moreover, there is a notable absence of frameworks for teacher training programs that equip educators with the competencies needed to bridge Chinese and African pedagogies. Addressing these research gaps will be essential in ensuring that Chinese language instruction contributes meaningfully to Zimbabwe’s postcolonial educational transformation.

This literature review reiterates the need for a localized, heritage-sensitive model of Chinese language instruction in Zimbabwe. A model that leverages cultural parallels, fosters intercultural competences, and aligns with the broader goals of Education 5.0. By embedding indigenous knowledge and pedagogies into foreign language teaching, Zimbabwean education can promote both global communication skills and cultural sovereignty. The integration of such approaches will contribute to a more inclusive, empowering, and development-oriented curriculum that is responsive to learners’ identities, aspirations, and sociocultural contexts.

Methodology

This study adopted a qualitative research methodology to investigate how Chinese language instruction is contextualized and integrated within Zimbabwe’s Heritage-Based Curriculum (HBC). The primary focus explored pedagogical practices, cultural contextualization, and teacher experiences in aligning Chinese language education with Zimbabwean cultural values and identity. It explored to what extent teachers incorporate local cultural knowledge and materials into Chinese language education, and the extent to which this process aligns with HBC principles. The study further examined the training background of Chinese language instructors and how they adapt (“nativise”) pedagogical approaches to suit the Zimbabwean context. The qualitative approach is suited for this inquiry because it allows for in-depth engagement with the lived experiences, interpretations, and practices of participants (Creswell & Poth, 2018).

The study was conducted in 15 educational institutions in Zimbabwe currently offering Chinese language as a subject. The institutions ranged from primary, secondary, tertiary and university. These institutions were selected purposively based on their inclusion of Chinese in the curriculum and their geographical and institutional diversity. The key criteria for selection and inclusion demanded the active offering of Chinese courses, the presence of a Chinese language instructor, and institutional willingness to participate. Participants comprised of Chinese language teachers (n = 24), both locally trained and those trained in China, to provide insight into teaching strategies, training backgrounds, and curricular adaptation. Students (n = 36) from various educational levels who are enrolled in Chinese language courses, selected to ensure diversity in age, background, and region. Curriculum specialists and policymakers (n = 6) involved in language and heritage curriculum development.

Data were collected using semi-structured interviews, non-participant classroom observations, and focus group discussions (FGDs). The triangulated approach was designed to increase validity (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016) and to get a deeper experience and understanding of teaching pedagogies.

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with teachers and curriculum leaders to explore the different skill, competency and variables surrounding the teaching of Chinese language and employment of HBC. Discussions varied on instructors’ training background (Zimbabwe based or China), the nature and origins of instructional materials (e.g., textbooks, audios, applications, ICT Tools). The research also dwelled on the instructors and curriculum leaders level of awareness of HBC and to what extent were examples and content used during teaching was contextualized to Zimbabwean heritage setting and environment. These interviews also explored experiences, perceptions, and insights on the relevance and cultural adaptability of Chinese instruction. The question on a holistic probed into curriculum content, pedagogical practices, challenges encountered, and cultural contextualization. The interviews provided the depth and flexibility necessary to probe participants’ experiences and perspectives in the use of HBC guidelines in the instruction of Chinese language.

Classroom observations were undertaken in selected institutions to document teaching practices in situ. A structured observation protocol was used to record the use of local examples, cultural references, and heritage-related themes in lesson delivery. This allowed for an authentic, contextualized understanding of classroom dynamics (Creswell & Poth, 2018). The non-participant classroom observations were conducted to assess teaching practices, student engagement, and the use of culturally responsive materials. Particular attention was given to whether teachers used local examples, indigenous metaphors, or heritage-linked visual aids during instruction.

Focus group discussions with students (3 groups, 8–10 participants each) offered a collaborative platform to explore learner perceptions of the relevance, accessibility, and cultural resonance of Chinese language instruction. The Focus group discussions also aimed to understand learners views on how Chinese relates to their own heritage. FGDs enabled the collection of collective meanings and group-based insights that might not emerge in individual interviews (Morgan, 1997).

Document Analysis on educational materials including textbooks, lesson plans, and assessment tools were also analyzed to determine alignment with heritage-based curriculum principles and the extent to which they incorporated local content, narratives, or comparative cultural elements. The analysis framework was adapted from Banks (2006) that advocates assessment of the level of cultural integration in instructional materials.

The study data analysis followed a thematic analysis approach (Braun & Clarke, 2006), which is particularly well-suited for uncovering patterns across qualitative data sets. This method enabled the researchers to explore how Chinese language instruction is being contextualized within Zimbabwe’s Heritage-Based Curriculum (HBC), focusing on pedagogical strategies, cultural content, and teacher training experiences. Interviews and focus group discussions were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and reviewed for accuracy. Classroom observation notes were compiled using a structured observation protocol, and all documents (textbooks, lesson plans, policy materials) were scanned, categorized, and coded using NVivo 12 software for qualitative data management. To preserve anonymity, all identifying details were removed or pseudonymized during transcription (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Thematic Analysis Process

The thematic structure was aligned with key principles of the Heritage-Based Curriculum and Zimbabwe’s Education 5.0 philosophy, which emphasize contextual relevance, cultural identity, and innovation in education. Data interpretation considered how Chinese language instruction either converged with or diverged from these national education priorities.

Ethical approval was obtained from relevant institutional and educational authorities. Participants were informed of the study’s objectives, and written informed consent was obtained. Participation was voluntary, and confidentiality was upheld through anonymization of personal identifiers and secure data storage. The study adhered to the ethical guidelines for research with human participants (British Educational Research Association [BERA], 2018).

While this research yielded significant insights, it was not without its challenges. The sensitive nature of discussing Sino-Zimbabwean relations and curriculum policy required careful navigation to secure access and trust. This was mitigated by obtaining official ethical clearances, emphasizing the study’s academic purpose, and leveraging professional networks to build rapport with institutions. Furthermore, logistical and resource constraints were addressed through a hybrid data collection model, combining in-person visits with virtual interviews to ensure a diverse sample. To ensure the analytical rigor and trustworthiness of the findings, several strategies were employed. We practiced reflexivity by maintaining a research journal to scrutinize our own potential biases. Data triangulation correlating insights from semi-structured interviews, focus groups, and classroom observations was used to cross-check claims and mitigate social desirability bias. Finally, emerging interpretations were subjected to peer debriefing and member checking with a subset of participants to enhance the validity and accuracy of the thematic analysis.

Results and Findings

Data were drawn from semi-structured interviews, classroom observations, focus group discussions, and document analysis conducted across 12 institutions from primary to tertiary level. The thematic analysis yielded four major themes: (1) Contextualization of Teaching Materials, (2) Pedagogical Localization, and (3) Teacher Training and Identity Construction

Contextualization of Teaching Materials

Findings reveal that the use of locally relevant teaching materials is inconsistent across institutions. While a few urban primary and secondary schools demonstrated some adaptation—using localized examples, such as referencing Zimbabwean animals, foods, and customs when introducing Chinese vocabulary most relied heavily on standardized Chinese textbooks imported through Confucius Institutes. Some teachers however also integrated the use of the Chinese-Shona dictionary and the Teaching Chinese the Zimbabwean way textbook.

Approximately 70% of the observed schools used textbooks entirely in Mandarin and English, with no translation or contextual adaptation to local cultural settings. The main textbook used was HSK Standard Course textbook. This textbook was written by Chinese language lecturers at the Beijing Language and Culture University. Other schools made use of the YCT textbooks for the primary school students. However one instructor from a primary school said that “It was only until recently we started to use the YCT textbook for the younger learners, before we made use of the HSK Standard Course textbook from primary to secondary school.” (Interview, Teacher, School 3). This not only raises a disconnect of homegrown instruction material but also raises a concern of age appropriate content being taught. Singh and Nguyễn (2018) discusses the importance of aligning teaching pedagogies and materials to be age appropriate in TEYL teaching, as learners at different levels and stages of learning assimilate content diversely. They posit that seeking age-appropriate pedagogies has, therefore, become an imperative For TEYL teachers in different educational contexts. Another secondary school instructor stated: “We were given the books from the Confucius Institute, and there is little room to adjust or create our own materials even if we wanted to.” (Interview, Teacher, School 7). This raises concerns about the cultural responsiveness of instructional content (Gay, 2010). The absence of Zimbabwean contextual elements risks rendering the learning experience abstract and disconnected from learners’ lived experiences. This shows a lack of access to customized materials and rigid curricular expectations from foreign partner institutions when they provide teaching materials.

The research findings also showed evidence of limited use of the Zimbabwean context Chinese related books namely, The Chinese-Shona dictionary (Mashiri et al., 2018), Chinese for Beginners The Zimbabwe Way. ‘I know there are other textbooks written by Zimbabweans but I have not used either in my teaching” (Interview, Teacher, School 2). “I was taught Chinese language using the HSK Standard Course textbook and I just feel it’s easier to use compared to the Zimbabwean context textbook” (Interview, Teacher, School 6). They went on to acknowledge that in as much as the textbooks used Zimbabwean context, they just found it easier to use the familiar and more accessible textbook.

Other available teaching materials included HSK Standard Course and YCT textbooks audio material. These audios help guide learners with pronunciation of new words and texts in the textbook through process of listening and repeating after the speaker. The teachers and students commend the usefulness of these audios in improving learners listening and speaking skill and also preparing them for native Chinese speakers accents. However the rationale remains that the audios are a regurgitation of the Chinese context based textbooks. The instructors also make use of Chinese developed mobile dictionary application, Artificial Intelligence (AI) applications and Massive Online Open Courses (MOOC) platforms’. These whilst useful in the teaching and learning of Chinese language, similar to the available textbooks are produced mainly in China with China related content, examples and reference. The dominance of Confucius Institute provided HSK materials further compounds this issue, limiting teachers’ autonomy to localize content.

The research findings show that the instructional materials used to teach Chinese language in Zimbabwe offer minimal to no Zimbabwean related context. Aspects may be similar but the similarities are bountly leaning on Chinese contexts. To include a Heritage based approach to the teaching of Chinese language in Zimbabwe it is imperative that the base foundation of teaching which is instructional material be with context that aligns to the environment. Nnamdi-Eruchalu (2012) in an analysis on role of textbooks in the effectiveness of teaching English as a second language in Nigeria posits there is a need for the use of appropriate textbooks which have contents that are rich enough to meet the demands of the students as well as the objectives of the curriculum. Nnamdi-Eruchalu (2012) likens what a textbook is to a student what a cutlass is to a farmer. They emphasis on the importance of having a good tool (textbook) that is relevant to the field and work to be done (curriculum). This supports the notion that the lack of Zimbabwean context based textbooks in the teaching of Chinese as a second language in Zimbabwe poses a divide between what the learner is assimilating via the textbook contents and the objectives of the curriculum. If for example the aim of the heritage based curriculum is to bring solutions to climate changes and global warming in Zimbabwe. Learners must in Chinese language learn about the weather, the HSK Standard Course textbook topic on weather emphasises on snow. Snow is a foreign concept in Zimbabwe but common in China. Bryce and Blown (2024) states that “learning takes place through a meaningful process of relating new events or items to already existing cognitive concepts propositions”. Despite the HBC’s emphasis on indigenization, implementation challenges persist. A curriculum specialist lamented: “The Ministry wants ‘Heritage-Based’ Chinese, but our textbooks come from Beijing.” This tension reflects broader contradictions between Zimbabwe’s educational aspirations and the practical realities of language programming, particularly when such programs are tied to international partnerships. Learners of the Chinese language must be able to relate new information to prior knowledge, thus environment relevant Thus the lesson presented by the textbook is more relevant for use in a China environment not Zimbabwean.

Pedagogical Localization and Classroom Practice

Despite the lack of localized textbooks, several teachers during the interviews informed that they attempted to infuse Zimbabwean cultural references into their teaching pedagogy. They understood the desire to nativize and localize as much as possible the teaching and learning of Chinese language. Singh and Nguyễn (2018) critically examine the ways in which teacher-researchers can employ to develop locally appropriate pedagogies, curriculum content and modes of assessment in Chinese language teaching and learning. They propagate on the importance of n language teachers learning the culture and assimilating in the target environment they are offering service. In their research they looked at the cultural, environment and curriculum understanding of Native Chinese in-service teachers teaching in a foreign country or environment. One of the goals of education is to ponder critically about local/foreign knowledge production and dissemination. In the context of this research it is the emphasis on the fusion of the nexus between Chinese language teaching and the Zimbabwe Heritage based Curriculum.

In classroom pedagogical delivery in order to achieve the localisation/nativisation of Chinese language teaching instructors must ensure that Chinese language education is taught to serve local purposes, not foreign interests (Singh & Nguyen). This means that the outcome of Chinese language teaching is a learner/product who can fluently speak the Chinese language in the target country Zimbabwe. The product speaker must be able to express one’s local environment, heritage,customs contexts in the Chinese language. As Teacher 9 noted: “My students probably won’t visit Beijing but they’ll negotiate with Chinese miners in Bindura. I teach practical language.” One of the major purposes of learning Chinese language in Zimbabwe is to bridge the gap of communication between Zimbabweans and Chinese in Zimbabwe. Thus the fundamental pedagogical training of Chinese language must be localized to serve the main agenda of the teaching and learning of Chinese language.

Interview Teacher School 4 mentioned that in giving examples during lessons they tried to incorporate local examples. “When teaching about foods, I try to include Zimbabwean dishes into the sentences used. For example 我喜欢 吃Sadza (I like to eat Sadza)”. Sadza is a staple food in Zimbabwe and Standard Course HSK 1, chapter 8 teaches on different types of foods. Emphasis is on “中国菜” inclusive of rice, noodles, tea. Whilst these foods are part of Zimbabwe’s cuisine, it is important for learners to be able to talk about their own country foods. “I don’t know how to say Sadza in Chinese language or if we have a one word to say Sadza, but I teach my students to incorporate Chinese sentence structure with our own Zimbabwean terms” This is an example of lexical borrowed which is common in language intercultural communication. The most common example of the lexical borrowing is use of the word “Sushi” a Japanese type of food but the term has been adopted and replicated in the English language and many other languages (Sowers, 2017). The food has managed to maintain its native name and also culture around its origins. Adopting the term sadza into Chinese sentence making, is an example of lexical borrowing contributing to localization of language. This practice in turn contributes to the merging of Heritage Based Curriculum and Chinese language teaching. Learners are able to retain knowledge of their local foods and flavors whilst also learning new knowledge language skill. This an example of localizing Chinese language.

Classroom observations also showed some level of cultural localization. Instructors made use of native Zimbabwean songs, folktales and poems to teach Chinese language. They maintained the popular songs tune and melody and either translated the words/lyrics into Chinese language or created new lyrics in Chinese language. With prior knowledge of the song tunes, the new songs in Chinese language not only helped learners retain their cultural songs and significance but also to also learn new Chinese vocabulary, via the cultural songs. Kanonidou & Papachristou, (2018) the significance of songs, lyrics and poetry lies in the fact that they promote memorisation and recall of language patterns more easily. Folktales were also used for pedagogical instruction. The instructors made learners depict popular Zimbabwean folktales like the Hare and Baboon in simple Chinese language. This not only helped learners to learn new vocabulary in Chinese language but to also retain the traditional lessons transmitted through the folktales. “I learnt a lot of names of animals from the drama we acted in class about animals in traditional Zimbabwe. Our textbook teaches us about the Panda, we do not have Panda in Zimbabwe” (Student Respondent 9).

Teacher Training and Identity Construction

Analysis of interview data and classroom observation also indicates that teachers’ training backgrounds significantly influence their pedagogical instructional approaches. The research sample included teachers trained in China, teachers locally trained in Zimbabwe, untrained teachers who learnt the Chinese language in China and untrained teachers who learnt Chinese language in Zimbabwe. The research noted a difference in instructor pedagogy styles depending on their training background. It was noted that teachers trained from local Teacher training colleges in Zimbabwe were more likely to draw parallels between Zimbabwean and Chinese cultural practices, whereas those trained exclusively in China or at the University of Zimbabwe tended to emphasize linguistic form over cultural resonance. A responded trained at one of the local Zimbabwean Teacher College institutes noted that “To make the students engage and understand Chinese characters, I compare the development of Chinese characters and calligraphy with our rock art and explain how both carry a cultural and traditional background of development” Such efforts support intercultural communicative competence (Kramsch, 1998) and affirm the HBC’s emphasis on cultural rootedness and manipulation of immediate environment. This effect can be supported by differences in pedagogical training. Teacher colleges in Zimbabwe embed the training of current curriculum practices in their teaching of core subjects and pedagogies, enhancing the inclusion of curriculum objectives and instruction in their teaching and in this case HBC.

These differences have an effect in pedagogical instructional practices. Hindeme & Egounlet 2022 posit that language teacher training is more effective for good academic results due to use of appropriate techniques to teach and employing effective methods to understand the psychology of learners. Trained teachers are more likely to utilize evidence-based methods, incorporate diverse teaching strategies, and assess student learning more effectively. Non-trained teachers, while potentially proficient in the language, may rely more on intuitive teaching practices or lack a deeper understanding of language acquisition. Those trained in China expressed confidence in language proficiency but reported difficulty in adapting content for Zimbabwean learners due to unfamiliarity with local cultural references during initial teacher training or language learning. In contrast, teachers with local training, including those mentored by Zimbabwean-Chinese partnerships, demonstrated a stronger orientation toward cultural localization. This suggests that training contexts shape not only linguistic competence but also pedagogical identity (Canagarajah, 2005). One local teacher explained that, “Being trained here in Zimbabwe helped me see the link between teaching a foreign language and honouring our own traditions. It’s not just about words it’s about values.” (Focus Group, Teacher, School 4)This aligns with Makoni and Pennycook’s (2005) advocacy for decolonized language pedagogies grounded in local realities. Foreign languages must not be agents of one’s cultural erosion but must equip learners with linguistic skill to navigate different cultures and environments.

Discussion and Recommendations

This study reveals both the transformative potential and implementation challenges of integrating Chinese language instruction within Zimbabwe’s Heritage-Based Curriculum (HBC). The findings demonstrate that when educators creatively blend Mandarin instruction with local cultural references whether through comparative proverbs, adapted festivals, or hybrid linguistic practices they not only enhance language acquisition but also strengthen cultural identity. Such pedagogical approaches directly support the objectives of Education 5.0 by bridging local and global competencies in Chinese language learning. This dual focus will address Zimbabwe’s need for both cultural rootedness and international engagement and foreign language instruction can simultaneously preserve heritage while building global skills. However, the research uncovers fundamental tensions between policy aspirations and classroom realities. The predominance of Chinese produced HSK materials, coupled with limited teacher autonomy, creates what one participant termed “Heritage Based education without heritage materials.” This contradiction undermines the HBC’s potential of equipping learners with adequate skill to respond to own environment. There is need to identify interventions that could address these challenges. The interventions must center around intensive efforts of curriculum localization. Dual efforts to harmonise the China based and Zimbabwean based content must be adopted. There is also need for teacher “Glocalization” training. Teachers must be equipped with professional development combining Mandarin proficiency with cultural mediation skills and Heritage Based curricula awareness. Outside of the classroom community partnership collaboration must be considered. The emergence of hybrid language practices documented in markets and classrooms suggest that Zimbabwean learners are already creatively reconciling these cultural-linguistic tensions. Formalizing this organic innovation through policy support could help Zimbabwe model foreign language teaching as not merely imported, but meaningfully reconstituted to serve local aspirations. This approach would transform Chinese language education from a technical skill acquisition to a dynamic process of intercultural negotiation, ultimately fulfilling the HBC’s vision of education as both culturally sustaining and future-oriented. Future research should track the longitudinal impacts of such localized approaches on both language proficiency and cultural identity formation.

Based on the findings of this study, several recommendations are proposed to enhance the integration of Chinese language instruction into Zimbabwe’s heritage-based curriculum. These recommendations are intended for policymakers, curriculum developers, educators, and other stakeholders involved in language education in Zimbabwe.

Curriculum Reform and Development

One of the primary recommendations is the development of a stand-alone bilingual context and culturally inclusive curriculum that incorporates both Chinese and Zimbabwean cultural elements. Curriculum developers should work towards creating teaching materials that reflect local environment, Zimbabwean cultural practices and traditions and day to day life examples of Zimbabweans, while also introducing Chinese cultural and contemporary concepts in a way that is relatable to Zimbabwean students. This could include bilingual textbooks, resources on Zimbabwe-China exchanges, and the integration of Zimbabwean history and indigenous culture into Chinese language lessons.

Teacher Training and Professional Development

Teacher agency plays a pivotal role in this process. Vavrus and Bartlett (2012) advocate for localized teacher training programs that empower educators to co-create curricula with communities. In Zimbabwe, this could involve professional development workshops on intercultural communicative competence and heritage-responsive pedagogy, supported by locally relevant instructional materials. Nevertheless, challenges remain. The global nature of Chinese instruction, often benchmarked against standardized exams like the HSK, may resist localization. Teachers often lack training in intercultural and heritage-responsive pedagogy, and teaching materials are rarely adapted to local contexts. Overcoming these obstacles requires innovation in curriculum design, resource development, multilingual content creation (e.g., Chinese–Shona–English storybooks), and teacher education reforms.

To address the challenges of integrating cultural elements into Chinese language teaching, it is essential to invest in teacher training programs focused on intercultural education and the adaptation of foreign language teaching methods to local contexts. Teachers should be trained in using the Heritage Based Curriculum a relevant teaching strategies, such as task-based learning (TBLT) and content and language integrated learning (CLIL), which were highlighted in the study as effective approaches for combining language acquisition with local environment understanding. Teacher professional development should also focus on improving familiarity with both Sino-Zim language resources that incorporate local content.

Collaborative Partnerships with Chinese Institutions

The establishment of collaborative partnerships between Zimbabwean educational institutions and Chinese cultural organizations, such as Confucius Institutes, is another critical recommendation. These partnerships can help facilitate the exchange of teaching resources, expertise, and cultural materials. Additionally, partnerships with Chinese universities can provide opportunities for joint curriculum development, cultural exchange programs, and the training of Zimbabwean teachers by native Chinese instructors. By incorporating the expertise of both local and international educators, these collaborations can strengthen the relevance and quality of Chinese language education in Zimbabwe.

Policy Support for Heritage-Based Language Education

Finally, there is a need for strong policy support for the integration of heritage-based language instruction into national education frameworks. The Zimbabwean government, through both the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science and Technology Development and Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education should prioritize funding for the development of bilingual teaching materials, teacher training programs, and intercultural initiatives. Furthermore, policy frameworks should encourage the incorporation of cultural heritage into all foreign language curricula, including Chinese, to ensure that language learning is aligned with Zimbabwe’s broader educational reforms under Education 5.0.

Conclusion

This study has explored the integration of Chinese language instruction into Zimbabwe’s Heritage Based curriculum, with a particular focus on aligning language education with local environmental and cultural values. The research highlights the growing importance of Chinese language programs in Zimbabwe, driven by increasing economic, political and cultural exchanges between Zimbabwe and China. However, the study also identifies significant gaps in the current approach to Chinese language education, particularly in terms of heritage based relevance and the alignment of language instruction with Zimbabwe’s educational reforms under Education 5.0.

The findings reveal that both students and educators see the value in adapting Chinese language instruction to reflect Zimbabwe’s characteristics of a Heritage Based Curriculum. While there are challenges, such as the lack of appropriate teaching materials and teacher training, there are also significant opportunities for integrating local environment, context, heritage and cultural elements into the curriculum. The study proposes several key recommendations, including the development of bilingual, inclusive curricula, teacher professional development in intercultural pedagogy, and the establishment of partnerships with Chinese institutions to enhance the quality and relevance of Chinese language education in Zimbabwe.

In conclusion, the integration of Chinese language instruction into a heritage-based curriculum presents an exciting opportunity to enrich language education in Zimbabwe while fostering a deeper connection between students and their tangible heritage. Future research could explore the practical implementation of these recommendations, including the effectiveness of intercultural teaching strategies and the development of culturally relevant teaching resources. Additionally, further studies could investigate the impact of such an integrated curriculum on student learning outcomes and cultural understanding.