Gene–Environment Interplay Beyond Interactions: Psychosocial Environments Mediate Genetic Effects Underlying Externalizing-Behavior Trajectories

Abstract

We investigate gene–environment interplay for the development of externalizing (EXT) behaviors in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health. Latent trajectories of substance-use behaviors (SUB) and antisocial behaviors (ASB) spanning ages 13 to 41 were extracted in a prior study. Adolescent psychosocial environments (i.e., supportive parenting, delinquent-peer affiliation, school connectedness, and neighborhood connectedness) were modeled to moderate and mediate the effects of EXT polygenic scores (PGSs) in predicting SUB and ASB trajectories in European (n = 5,025; main analyses), African (n = 1,728), Asian (n = 382), and Hispanic (n = 773) genetic-similarity groups. There was no evidence of moderation effects. However, PGS effects operated indirectly through psychosocial environments, notably via delinquent-peer affiliation. Despite the prominence of genetic effects underlying EXT, peer influences may play an especially important role in the ways in which genetic effects influence EXT trajectories. Clinical and theoretical implications are discussed.

Keywords

gene–environment interplay externalizing behavior polygenic scores indirect effects development preregistration

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Acland

E. L.

Pocuca

Paquin

Boivin

Ouellet-Morin

Andlauer

T. F. M.

Gouin

J. P.

Côté

S. M.

Tremblay

R. E.

Geoffroy

Castellanos-Ryan

(2025). Polygenic risk and hostile environments: Links to stable and dynamic antisocial behaviors across adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 37(1), 464–476. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095457942400004X

Ahern

Thompson

Fan

C. C.

Loughnan

(2023). Comparing pruning and thresholding with continuous shrinkage polygenic score methods in a large sample of ancestrally diverse adolescents from the ABCD Study®. Behavior Genetics, 53(3), 292–309. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10519-023-10139-w

Akcinar

Baydar

(2016). Development of externalizing behaviors in the context of family and non-family relationships. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(6), 1848–1859. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0375-z

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.).

Andersen

S. H.

Steinberg

Belsky

(2021). Beyond early years versus adolescence: The interactive effect of adversity in both periods on life-course development. Developmental Psychology, 57(11), 1958–1967. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001247

Baker

A. E.

Galván

Fuligni

A. J.

(2025). The connecting brain in context: How adolescent plasticity supports learning and development. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 71, Article 101486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2024.101486

Baldwin

J. R.

Sallis

H. M.

Schoeler

Taylor

M. J.

Kwong

A. S. F.

Tielbeek

J. J.

Barkhuizen

Warrier

Howe

L. D.

Danese

McCrory

Rijsdijk

Larsson

Lundström

Karlsson

Lichtenstein

Munafò

Pingault

J.-B.

(2023). A genetically informed Registered Report on adverse childhood experiences and mental health. Nature Human Behaviour, 7(2), Article 2. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-022-01482-9

Barr

P. B.

Dick

D. M.

(2019). The genetics of externalizing problems. In de Wit

Jentsch

J. D.

(Eds.), Recent advances in research on impulsivity and impulsive behaviors (Vol. 47, pp. 93–112). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2019_120

Beerthuizen

M. G. C. J.

Brugman

(2016). The relationship of moral value evaluation with externalizing behaviour across value areas in adolescents. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 13(1), 84–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2015.1066669

10.

Braudt

Harris

K. M.

(2020). Polygenic scores (PGSs) in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) – Release 2. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill University Libraries. https://doi.org/10.17615/9G92-VC17

11.

Braveman

Egerter

Williams

D. R.

(2011). The social determinants of health: Coming of age. Annual Review of Public Health, 32, 381–398. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031210-101218

12.

Brislin

S. J.

Patrick

C. J.

(2019). Callousness and affective face processing: Clarifying the neural basis of behavioral-recognition deficits through the use of brain event-related potentials. Clinical Psychological Science, 7(6), 1389–1402. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702619856342

13.

Bronfenbrenner

Ceci

S. J.

(1994). Nature-nurture reconceptualized in developmental perspective: A bioecological model. Psychological Review, 101(4), 568–586. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.101.4.568

14.

Brook

D. W.

Brook

J. S.

Rubenstone

Zhang

Saar

N. S.

(2011). Developmental associations between externalizing behaviors, peer delinquency, drug use, perceived neighborhood crime, and violent behavior in urban communities. Aggressive Behavior, 37(4), 349–361. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20397

15.

Brumley

L. D.

Jaffee

S. R.

(2016). Defining and distinguishing promotive and protective effects for childhood externalizing psychopathology: A systematic review. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 51(6), 803–815. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-016-1228-1

16.

Buil

J. M.

van Lier

P. A. C.

Brendgen

M. R.

Koot

H. M.

Vitaro

(2017). Developmental pathways linking childhood temperament with antisocial behavior and substance use in adolescence: Explanatory mechanisms in the peer environment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 112(6), 948–966. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000132

17.

Burt

S. A.

Klump

K. L.

(2012). Etiological distinctions between aggressive and non-aggressive antisocial behavior: Results from a nuclear twin family model. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40(7), 1059–1071. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-012-9632-9

18.

Busching

Krahé

(2018). The contagious effect of deviant behavior in adolescence: A longitudinal multilevel study. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 9(7), 815–824. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550617725151

19.

Carlisi

C. O.

Moffitt

T. E.

Knodt

A. R.

Harrington

Ireland

Melzer

T. R.

Poulton

Ramrakha

Caspi

Hariri

A. R.

Viding

(2020). Associations between life-course-persistent antisocial behaviour and brain structure in a population-representative longitudinal birth cohort. The Lancet Psychiatry, 7(3), 245–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(20)30002-X

20.

Carroll

S. L.

Klump

K. L.

Burt

S. A.

(2023). Understanding the effects of neighborhood disadvantage on youth psychopathology. Psychological Medicine, 53(7), 3036–3046. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291721005080

21.

Chen

Johnston

(2007). Maternal inattention and impulsivity and parenting behaviors. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 36(3), 455–468. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374410701448570

22.

Cheung

A. K.

Harden

K. P.

Tucker-Drob

E. M.

(2014). Gene×environment interactions in early externalizing behaviors: Parental emotional support and socioeconomic context as moderators of genetic influences? Behavior Genetics, 44(5), 468–486. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10519-014-9664-8

23.

Clark

D. A.

Klump

K. L.

Burt

S. A.

(2018). Parent depressive symptomatology moderates the etiology of externalizing behavior in childhood: An examination of gene-environment interaction effects. Developmental Psychology, 54(7), 1277–1289. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000522

24.

Dash

G. F.

Karalunas

S. L.

Kenyon

E. A.

Carter

E. K.

Mooney

M. A.

Nigg

J. T.

Feldstein Ewing

S. W.

(2023). Gene-by-environment interaction effects of social adversity on externalizing behavior in ABCD youth. Behavior Genetics, 53(3), 219–231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10519-023-10136-z

25.

de la Paz

Mooney

M. A.

Ryabinin

Neighbor

Antovich

Nigg

J. T.

Nikolas

M. A.

(2023). Youth polygenic scores, youth ADHD symptoms, and parenting dimensions: An evocative gene-environment correlation study. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, 51(5), 665–677. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-023-01024-5

26.

Deng

W. Q.

Belisario

Doggett

Pigeyre

Pare

Munafò

M. R.

MacKillop

(2025). Externalizing as a common genetic influence for a broad spectrum of substance use and behavioral conditions: A developmental perspective from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children. Addiction, 120(12), 2559–2572. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.70163

27.

Dilalla

L. F.

Gottesman

I. I.

(1989). Heterogeneity of causes for delinquency and criminality: Lifespan perspectives. Development and Psychopathology, 1(4), 339–349. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579400000511

28.

Dishion

T. J.

McCord

Poulin

(1999). When interventions harm: Peer groups and problem behavior. American Psychologist, 54(9), 755–764. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.9.755

29.

Duncan

R. P.

Kefford

B. J.

(2021). Interactions in statistical models: Three things to know. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 12(12), 2287–2297. https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-210X.13714

30.

Eilertsen

E. M.

Cheesman

Ayorech

Røysamb

Pingault

J.-B.

Njølstad

P. R.

Andreassen

O. A.

Havdahl

McAdams

T. A.

Torvik

F. A.

Ystrøm

(2022). On the importance of parenting in externalizing disorders: An evaluation of indirect genetic effects in families. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 63(10), 1186–1195. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13654

31.

Elam

K. K.

Clifford

Ruof

Shaw

D. S.

Wilson

M. N.

Lemery-Chalfant

(2022). Genotype–environment correlation by intervention effects underlying middle childhood peer rejection and associations with adolescent marijuana use. Development and Psychopathology, 34(1), 171–182. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579420001066

32.

Elam

K. K.

Lemery-Chalfant

Chassin

(2023). A gene-environment cascade theoretical framework of developmental psychopathology. Journal of Psychopathology and Clinical Science, 132(3), 287–296. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000546

33.

Elam

K. K.

Mun

C. J.

Kutzner

(2021). Polygenic risk for aggression predicts adult substance use disorder diagnoses via substance use offending in emerging adulthood and is moderated by a family-centered intervention. Behavior Genetics, 51(5), 607–618. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10519-021-10070-y

34.

Fletcher

Bonell

Sorhaindo

Strange

(2009). How might schools influence young people’s drug use? Development of theory from qualitative case-study research. Journal of Adolescent Health, 45(2), 126–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.12.021

35.

Fortuin

van Geel

Vedder

(2015). Peer influences on internalizing and externalizing problems among adolescents: A longitudinal social network analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(4), 887–897. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0168-x

36.

Gaete

Rojas

Fritsch

Araya

(2018). Association between school membership and substance use among adolescents. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 9, Article 25. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00025

37.

Gard

A. M.

Waller

Shaw

D. S.

Forbes

E. E.

Hariri

A. R.

Hyde

L. W.

(2017). The long reach of early adversity: Parenting, stress, and neural pathways to antisocial behavior in adulthood. Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, 2(7), 582–590. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2017.06.005

38.

Chen

C.-Y.

Feng

Y.-C. A.

Smoller

J. W.

(2019). Polygenic prediction via Bayesian regression and continuous shrinkage priors. Nature Communications, 10(1), Article 1776. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-09718-5

39.

Gornik

A. E.

Clark

D. A.

Durbin

C. E.

Zucker

R. A.

(2023). Individual differences in the development of youth externalizing problems predict a broad range of adult psychosocial outcomes. Development and Psychopathology, 35(2), 630–651. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579421001772

40.

Hall

N. T.

Schreiber

A. M.

Allen

T. A.

Hallquist

M. N.

(2021). Disentangling cognitive processes in externalizing psychopathology using drift diffusion modeling: Antagonism, but not disinhibition, is associated with poor cognitive control. Journal of Personality, 89(5), 970–985. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12628

41.

Hamdi

N. R.

Iacono

W. G.

(2014). Lifetime prevalence and co-morbidity of externalizing disorders and depression in prospective assessment. Psychological Medicine, 44(2), 315–324. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291713000627

42.

Hannigan

L. J.

Lund

I. O.

Askelund

A. D.

Ystrom

Corfield

E. C.

Ask

Havdahl

(2024). Genotype–environment interplay in associations between maternal drinking and offspring emotional and behavioral problems. Psychological Medicine, 54(1), 203–214. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291723003057

43.

Harris

K. M.

Halpern

C. T.

Whitsel

E. A.

Hussey

J. M.

Killeya-Jones

L. A.

Tabor

Dean

S. C.

(2019). Cohort profile: The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health). International Journal of Epidemiology, 48(5), 1415–1415k. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyz115

44.

Hatoum

A. S.

Colbert

S. M. C.

Johnson

E. C.

Huggett

S. B.

Deak

J. D.

Pathak

G. A.

Jennings

M. V.

Paul

S. E.

Karcher

N. R.

Hansen

Baranger

D. A. A.

Edwards

Grotzinger

A. D.

, Substance Use Disorder Working Group of the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium, Tucker-Drob

E. M.

Kranzler

H. R.

Davis

L. K.

Sanchez-Roige

Polimanti

. . . Agrawal

. (2023). Multivariate genome-wide association meta-analysis of over 1 million subjects identifies loci underlying multiple substance use disorders. Nature Mental Health, 1(3), 210–223. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44220-023-00034-y

45.

Hatoum

A. S.

Rhee

S. H.

Corley

R. P.

Hewitt

J. K.

Friedman

N. P.

(2018). Etiology of stability and growth of internalizing and externalizing behavior problems across childhood and adolescence. Behavior Genetics, 48(4), 298–314. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10519-018-9900-8

46.

J. J.

(2022). A gene-environment interaction study of polygenic scores and maltreatment on childhood ADHD. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, 50(3), 309–319. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-021-00873-2

47.

Hicks

B. M.

South

S. C.

DiRago

A. C.

Iacono

W. G.

McGue

(2009). Environmental adversity and increasing genetic risk for externalizing disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 66(6), 640–648. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.554

48.

Hinnant

J. B.

Erath

S. A.

K. M.

El-Sheikh

(2016). Permissive parenting, deviant peer affiliations, and delinquent behavior in adolescence: The moderating role of sympathetic nervous system reactivity. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(6), 1071–1081. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-0114-8

49.

Hyde

L. W.

Tillem

Westerman

H. B.

Guzman

J. M.

(2024). An ecological neurodevelopmental model of the development of youth antisocial behavior and callous-unemotional traits. Annual Review of Developmental Psychology, 6, 273–300. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-120621-045355

50.

Isen

Tuvblad

Younan

Ericson

Raine

Baker

L. A.

(2022). Developmental trajectories of delinquent and aggressive behavior: Evidence for differential heritability. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 53(2), 199–211. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-020-01119-w

51.

Jaffee

S. R.

Price

T. S.

(2007). Gene–environment correlations: A review of the evidence and implications for prevention of mental illness. Molecular Psychiatry, 12(5), Article 5. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.mp.4001950

52.

Jennings

W. G.

Perez

N. M.

Gonzalez

J. M. R.

(2018). Conduct disorder and neighborhood effects. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 14, 317–341. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050817-084911

53.

Judd

C. M.

Yzerbyt

V. Y.

Muller

(2014). Mediation and moderation. In Reis

H. T.

Judd

C. M.

(Eds.), Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology (2nd ed, pp. 653–676). Cambridge University Press.

54.

Jung

Wickrama

K. A. S.

(2008). An introduction to latent class growth analysis and growth mixture modeling: Latent trajectory classes. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2(1), 302–317. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00054.x

55.

Karlsson Linnér

Mallard

T. T.

Barr

P. B.

Sanchez-Roige

Madole

J. W.

Driver

M. N.

Poore

H. E.

de Vlaming

Grotzinger

A. D.

Tielbeek

J. J.

Johnson

E. C.

Liu

Rosenthal

S. B.

Ideker

Zhou

Kember

R. L.

Pasman

J. A.

Verweij

K. J. H.

Liu

D. J.

. . . Dick

D. M

. (2021). Multivariate analysis of 1.5 million people identifies genetic associations with traits related to self-regulation and addiction. Nature Neuroscience, 24(10), 1367–1376. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-021-00908-3

56.

Keller

M. C.

(2014). Gene × environment interaction studies have not properly controlled for potential confounders: The problem and the (simple) solution. Biological Psychiatry, 75(1), 18–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.09.006

57.

Kendler

K. S.

Aggen

S. H.

Knudsen

G. P.

Røysamb

Neale

M. C.

Reichborn-Kjennerud

(2011). The structure of genetic and environmental risk factors for syndromal and subsyndromal common DSM-IV Axis I and all Axis II disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 168(1), 29–39. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.10030340

58.

Kendler

K. S.

Baker

J. H.

(2007). Genetic influences on measures of the environment: A systematic review. Psychological Medicine, 37(5), 615–626. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291706009524

59.

Kendler

K. S.

Gardner

Dick

D. M.

(2011). Predicting alcohol consumption in adolescence from alcohol-specific and general externalizing genetic risk factors, key environmental exposures and their interaction. Psychological Medicine, 41(7), 1507–1516. https://doi.org/10.1017/S003329171000190X

60.

Kendler

K. S.

Jacobson

K. C.

Gardner

C. O.

Gillespie

Aggen

S. A.

Prescott

C. A.

(2007). Creating a social world: A developmental twin study of peer-group deviance. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64(8), 958–965. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.64.8.958

61.

Kretschmer

Vrijen

Nolte

I. M.

Wertz

Hartman

C. A.

(2022). Gene–environment interplay in externalizing behavior from childhood through adulthood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 63(10), 1206–1213. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13652

62.

Krueger

R. F.

Hicks

B. M.

Patrick

C. J.

Carlson

S. R.

Iacono

W. G.

McGue

(2002). Etiologic connections among substance dependence, antisocial behavior and personality: Modeling the externalizing spectrum. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111(3), 411–424. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.111.3.411

63.

Krueger

R. F.

Markon

K. E.

Patrick

C. J.

Benning

S. D.

Kramer

M. D.

(2007). Linking antisocial behavior, substance use, and personality: An integrative quantitative model of the adult externalizing spectrum. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116(4), 645–666. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.116.4.645

64.

Ksinan

A. J.

Smith

R. L.

Barr

P. B.

Vazsonyi

A. T.

(2022). The associations of polygenic scores for risky behaviors and parenting behaviors with adolescent externalizing problems. Behavior Genetics, 52(1), 26–37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10519-021-10079-3

65.

Kuo

S. I.-C.

Salvatore

J. E.

Barr

P. B.

Aliev

Anokhin

Bucholz

K. K.

Chan

Edenberg

H. J.

Hesselbrock

Kamarajan

Kramer

J. R.

Lai

Mallard

T. T.

Nurnberger

J. I.

Pandey

Plawecki

M. H.

Sanchez-Roige

Waldman

Palmer

A. A.

Dick

D. M.

(2021). Mapping pathways by which genetic risk influences adolescent externalizing behavior: The interplay between externalizing polygenic risk scores, parental knowledge, and peer substance use. Behavior Genetics, 51(5), 543–558. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10519-021-10067-7

66.

Lemery-Chalfant

Kao

Swann

Goldsmith

H. H.

(2013). Childhood temperament: Passive gene–environment correlation, gene–environment interaction, and the hidden importance of the family environment. Development and Psychopathology, 25(1), 51–63. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579412000892

67.

J. J.

(2019). Assessing phenotypic and polygenic models of ADHD to identify mechanisms of risk for longitudinal trajectories of externalizing behaviors. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 60(11), 1191–1199. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13071

68.

Johnson

S. B.

Musci

R. J.

Riley

A. W.

(2017). Perceived neighborhood quality, family processes, and trajectories of child and adolescent externalizing behaviors in the United States. Social Science & Medicine, 192, 152–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.07.027

69.

Little

T. D.

(2013). Longitudinal structural equation modeling. The Guilford Press.

70.

MacKinnon

D. P.

Lockwood

C. M.

Hoffman

J. M.

West

S. G.

Sheets

(2002). A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects. Psychological Methods, 7(1), 83–104. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.7.1.83

71.

Mann

F. D.

Patterson

M. W.

Grotzinger

A. D.

Kretsch

Tackett

J. L.

Tucker-Drob

E. M.

Harden

K. P.

(2016). Sensation seeking, peer deviance, and genetic influences on adolescent delinquency: Evidence for person-environment correlation and interaction. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 125(5), 679–691. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000160

72.

McAdams

Rowe

Rijsdijk

Maughan

Eley

T. C.

(2012). The covariation of antisocial behavior and substance use in adolescence: A behavioral genetic perspective. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 22(1), 100–112. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2011.00758.x

73.

McKee

Colletti

Rakow

Jones

D. J.

Forehand

(2008). Parenting and child externalizing behaviors: Are the associations specific or diffuse? Aggression and Violent Behavior, 13(3), 201–215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2008.03.005

74.

Miao

(2024). Statistical methods for gene–environment interaction analysis. WIREs Computational Statistics, 16(1), Article e1635. https://doi.org/10.1002/wics.1635

75.

Middeldorp

C. M.

Lamb

D. J.

Vink

J. M.

Bartels

van Beijsterveldt

C. E. M.

Boomsma

D. I.

(2014). Child care, socio-economic status and problem behavior: A study of gene–environment interaction in young dutch twins. Behavior Genetics, 44(4), 314–325. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10519-014-9660-z

76.

Miller

Malone

P. S.

Dodge

K. A.

, & Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2010). Developmental trajectories of boys’ and girls’ delinquency: Sex differences and links to later adolescent outcomes. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38(7), 1021–1032. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-010-9430-1

77.

Moffitt

T. E.

(1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100(4), 674–701. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.100.4.674

78.

Moffitt

T. E.

Caspi

Harrington

Milne

B. J.

(2002). Males on the life-course-persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways: Follow-up at age 26 years. Development and Psychopathology, 14(1), 179–207. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579402001104

79.

Monahan

K. C.

Rhew

I. C.

Hawkins

J. D.

Brown

E. C.

(2014). Adolescent pathways to co-occurring problem behavior: The effects of peer delinquency and peer substance use. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 24(4), 630–645. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12053

80.

Moos

R. H.

(2005). Iatrogenic effects of psychosocial interventions for substance use disorders: Prevalence, predictors, prevention. Addiction, 100(5), 595–604. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2005.01073.x

81.

Morrison

R. A.

Martinez

J. I.

Hilton

E. C.

J. J.

(2019). The influence of parents and schools on developmental trajectories of antisocial behaviors in Caucasian and African American youths. Development and Psychopathology, 31(04), 1575–1587. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579418001335

82.

Mrug

Windle

(2009). Mediators of neighborhood influences on externalizing behavior in preadolescent children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37(2), 265–280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-008-9274-0

83.

Muthén

L. K.

Muthén

B. O.

(2017). Mplus user’s guide (8th ed.).

84.

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Health and Medicine Division, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, Board on Health Sciences Policy, Committee on Population, & Committee on the Use of Race, Ethnicity, and Ancestry as Population Descriptors in Genomics Research. (2023). Using population descriptors in genetics and genomics research: A new framework for an evolving field. National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/26902

85.

Neiderhiser

J. M.

Chen

(2023). Gene–environment interplay in adolescence and early adulthood. In Crockett

L. J.

Carlo

Schulenberg

J. E.

(Eds.), APA handbook of adolescent and young adult development (pp. 39–54). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000298-003

86.

Obando

Trujillo

C. A.

(2014). Substance use and antisocial behavior in adolescents: The role of family and peer-individual risk and protective factors. Substance Use & Misuse, 49(14), 1934–1944. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826084.2014.956365

87.

Odgers

C. L.

Moffitt

T. E.

Broadbent

J. M.

Dickson

Hancox

R. J.

Harrington

Poulton

Sears

M. R.

Thomson

W. M.

Caspi

(2008). Female and male antisocial trajectories: From childhood origins to adult outcomes. Development and Psychopathology, 20(2), 673–716. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579408000333

88.

Parra

G. R.

Smith

G. L.

Mason

W. A.

Savolainen

Chmelka

M. B.

Miettunen

Järvelin

M.-R.

(2017). Tests of linear and nonlinear relations between cumulative contextual risk at birth and psychosocial problems during adolescence. Journal of Adolescence, 60, 64–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.07.010

89.

Pinquart

(2017). Associations of parenting dimensions and styles with externalizing problems of children and adolescents: An updated meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology, 53(5), 873–932. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000295

90.

Plomin

Gidziela

Malanchini

von Stumm

(2022). Gene–environment interaction using polygenic scores: Do polygenic scores for psychopathology moderate predictions from environmental risk to behavior problems? Development and Psychopathology, 34(5), 1816–1826. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579422000931

91.

Preacher

K. J.

Hayes

A. F.

(2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40(3), 879–891. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.40.3.879

92.

Price

A. L.

Patterson

N. J.

Plenge

R. M.

Weinblatt

M. E.

Shadick

N. A.

Reich

(2006). Principal components analysis corrects for stratification in genome-wide association studies. Nature Genetics, 38(8), 904–909. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng1847

93.

Price

A. L.

Zaitlen

N. A.

Reich

Patterson

(2010). New approaches to population stratification in genome-wide association studies. Nature Reviews Genetics, 11(7), 459–463. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg2813

94.

Purcell

Neale

Todd-Brown

Thomas

Ferreira

M. A. R.

Bender

Maller

Sklar

de Bakker

P. I. W.

Daly

M. J.

Sham

P. C.

(2007). PLINK: A tool set for whole-genome association and population-based linkage analyses. The American Journal of Human Genetics, 81(3), 559–575. https://doi.org/10.1086/519795

95.

Rabinowitz

J. A.

Musci

R. J.

Milam

A. J.

Benke

Uhl

G. R.

Sisto

D. Y.

Ialongo

N. S.

Maher

B. S.

(2018). The interplay between externalizing disorders polygenic risk scores and contextual factors on the development of marijuana use disorders. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 191, 365–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.07.016

96.

Reck

Bradley-Pikes

Fisher

Kogan

S. M.

(2024). Different mechanisms link internalized racism to externalizing symptomology among Black American adolescent boys and girls. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 63(10), 1005–1013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2023.11.011

97.

Reijntjes

Kamphuis

J. H.

Prinzie

Boelen

P. A.

Van Der Schoot

Telch

M. J.

(2011). Prospective linkages between peer victimization and externalizing problems in children: A meta-analysis. Aggressive Behavior, 37(3), 215–222. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20374

98.

Reiss

Leve

L. D.

(2007). Genetic expression outside the skin: Clues to mechanisms of genotype × environment interaction. Development and Psychopathology, 19(4), 1005–1027. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579407000508

99.

Rhee

S. H.

Waldman

I. D.

(2002). Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior: A meta-analysis of twin and adoption studies. Psychological Bulletin, 128(3), 490–529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.3.490

100.

Rohner

R. P.

(2004). The parental “acceptance-rejection syndrome”: Universal correlates of perceived rejection. American Psychologist, 59(8), 830–840. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.59.8.830

101.

Ruiz

M. A.

Pincus

A. L.

Schinka

J. A.

(2008). Externalizing pathology and the five-factor model: A meta-analysis of personality traits associated with antisocial personality disorder, substance use disorder, and their co-occurrence. Journal of Personality Disorders, 22(4), 365–388. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi.2008.22.4.365

102.

Salvatore

J. E.

Aliev

Bucholz

Agrawal

Hesselbrock

Bauer

Kuperman

Schuckit

M. A.

Kramer

J. R.

Edenberg

H. J.

Foroud

T. M.

Dick

D. M.

(2015). Polygenic risk for externalizing disorders: Gene-by-development and gene-by-environment effects in adolescents and young adults. Clinical Psychological Science, 3(2), 189–201. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702614534211

103.

Salvatore

J. E.

Dick

D. M.

(2018). Genetic influences on conduct disorder. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 91, 91–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.06.034

104.

Samek

D. R.

Hicks

B. M.

(2014). Externalizing disorders and environmental risk: Mechanisms of gene-environment interplay and strategies for intervention. Clinical Practice, 11(5), 537–547. https://doi.org/10.2217/CPR.14.47

105.

Samek

D. R.

Hicks

B. M.

Keyes

M. A.

Bailey

McGue

Iacono

W. G.

(2015). Gene–environment interplay between parent–child relationship problems and externalizing disorders in adolescence and young adulthood. Psychological Medicine, 45(2), 333–344. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291714001445

106.

Sameroff

A. J.

(Ed.). (2009). The transactional model of development: How children and contexts shape each other. American Psychological Association.

107.

Sasia

A. B.

Jonas

K. G.

Waszczuk

M. A.

J. J.

(2025). Associations of polygenic scores and developmental trajectories of externalizing behaviors. Development and Psychopathology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579424001962

108.

Sebastian

Viding

Williams

K. D.

Blakemore

S.-J.

(2010). Social brain development and the affective consequences of ostracism in adolescence. Brain and Cognition, 72(1), 134–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2009.06.008

109.

SooHoo

J. F.

Davis

C. N.

Han

Jinwala

Gelernter

Feinn

Kranzler

H. R.

(2025). Associations of childhood adversity and polygenic scores with substance use initiation and disorder severity. Psychological Medicine, 55, Article e132. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291725001163

110.

Trevino

Jamil

Aliev

(2022). Genetic risk of AUDs and childhood impulsivity: Examining the role of parenting and family environment. Development and Psychopathology, 34(5), 1827–1840. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095457942200092X

111.

Thompson

E. L.

Mehari

K. R.

Farrell

A. D.

(2020). Deviant peer factors during early adolescence: Cause or consequence of physical aggression? Child Development, 91(2), e415–e431. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13242

112.

Tielbeek

J. J.

Johansson

Polderman

T. J. C.

Rautiainen

M.-R.

Jansen

Taylor

Tong

Burt

A. S.

Tiemeier

Viding

Plomin

Martin

N. G.

Heath

A. C.

Madden

P. A. F.

Montgomery

Beaver

K. M.

Waldman

Gelernter

, . . . Broad Antisocial Behavior Consortium collaborators. (2017). Genome-wide association studies of a broad spectrum of antisocial behavior. JAMA Psychiatry, 74(12), 1242–1250. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.3069

113.

Tielbeek

J. J.

Uffelmann

Williams

B. S.

Colodro-Conde

Gagnon

É.

Mallard

T. T.

Levitt

B. E.

Jansen

P. R.

Johansson

Sallis

H. M.

Pistis

Saunders

G. R. B.

Allegrini

A. G.

Rimfeld

Konte

Klein

Hartmann

A. M.

Salvatore

J. E.

Nolte

I. M.

. . . Posthuma

(2022). Uncovering the genetic architecture of broad antisocial behavior through a genome-wide association study meta-analysis. Molecular Psychiatry, 27(11), 4453–4463. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-022-01793-3

114.

Trevino

A. D.

Jamil

Aliev

Elam

K. K.

Lemery-Chalfant

(2024). Alcohol use disorder polygenic risk scores and trajectories of early adolescent externalizing behaviors: Examining the role of parenting and family conflict in the racially/ethnically diverse ABCD sample. Behavior Genetics, 54(1), 101–118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10519-023-10155-w

115.

VanderWeele

T. J.

Y.-A.

Mukherjee

(2013). Environmental confounding in gene-environment interaction studies. American Journal of Epidemiology, 178(1), 144–152. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kws439

116.

Vergunst

Commisso

Geoffroy

M.-C.

Temcheff

Poirier

Park

Vitaro

Tremblay

Côté

Orri

(2023). Association of childhood externalizing, internalizing, and comorbid symptoms with long-term economic and social outcomes. JAMA Network Open, 6(1), Article e2249568. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.49568

117.

Visser

Bolt

Finkenauer

Jonker

Weinberg

Stevens

G. W. J. M

. (2021). Neighbourhood deprivation effects on young people’s mental health and well-being: A systematic review of the literature. Social Science & Medicine, 270, Article 113542. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113542

118.

Vitaro

Brendgen

Wanner

(2005). Patterns of affiliation with delinquent friends during late childhood and early adolescence: Correlates and consequences. Social Development, 14(1), 82–108. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2005.00292.x

119.

Walters

R. K.

Polimanti

Johnson

E. C.

McClintick

J. N.

Adams

M. J.

Adkins

A. E.

Aliev

Bacanu

S.-A.

Batzler

Bertelsen

Biernacka

J. M.

Bigdeli

T. B.

Chen

L.-S.

Clarke

T.-K.

Chou

Y.-L.

Degenhardt

Docherty

A. R.

Edwards

A. C.

Fontanillas

. . . Agrawal

(2018). Transancestral GWAS of alcohol dependence reveals common genetic underpinnings with psychiatric disorders. Nature Neuroscience, 21(12), Article 12. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41593-018-0275-1

120.

Wang

F. L.

Chassin

Lee

Haller

King

(2017). Roles of response inhibition and gene–environment interplay in pathways to adolescents’ externalizing problems. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 27(2), 258–277. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12270

121.

Wang

M.-T.

Degol

J. L.

Amemiya

Parr

Guo

(2020). Classroom climate and children’s academic and psychological wellbeing: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Developmental Review, 57, Article 100912. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2020.100912

122.

Watanabe

Taskesen

van Bochoven

Posthuma

(2019). FUMA: Functional mapping and annotation of genetic associations. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 29, S789–S790. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2017.08.018

123.

Wendt

F. R.

Pathak

G. A.

Tylee

D. S.

Goswami

Polimanti

(2020). Heterogeneity and polygenicity in psychiatric disorders: A genome-wide perspective. Chronic Stress, 4, Article 2470547020924844. https://doi.org/10.1177/2470547020924844

124.

Wright

Z. E.

Pahlen

Krueger

R. F.

(2017). Genetic and environmental influences on Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fifth Edition (DSM–5) maladaptive personality traits and their connections with normative personality traits. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126(4), 416–428. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000260

125.

Yang

Lee

S. H.

Goddard

M. E.

Visscher

P. M.

(2011). GCTA: A tool for genome-wide complex trait analysis. American Journal of Human Genetics, 88(1), 76–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajhg.2010.11.011

126.

Yasui

Dishion

T. J.

(2007). The ethnic context of child and adolescent problem behavior: Implications for child and family interventions. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 10(2), 137–179. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10567-007-0021-9

127.

Zhang

Belsky

(2022). Three phases of gene × environment interaction research: Theoretical assumptions underlying gene selection. Development and Psychopathology, 34(1), 295–306. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579420000966

128.

Zimmerman

G. M.

Vásquez

B. E.

(2011). Decomposing the peer effect on adolescent substance use: Mediation, nonlinearity, and differential nonlinearity. Criminology, 49(4), 1235–1273. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2011.00244.x

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.22 MB

0.00 MB