Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

In a large community sample of street-identified Black Americans (N = 364; ages 16–54; 55.6% male), we examined the health risks posed by living in communities saturated with violence and how cannabis use may influence health outcomes. Cross-sectional data collected using street-participatory action research and analyzed with hierarchical linear regressions indicated that violence exposure severity was differently related to physical- and mental-health outcomes depending on cannabis use. Specifically, links between more frequent violence exposure and elevations in blood pressure were significantly weaker among cannabis users compared with nonusers. However, frequent violence exposure was also more strongly related to worse emotional functioning (e.g., symptoms of anxiety and depression) among cannabis users than noncannabis users. Together, these findings suggest cannabis use may weaken the risk conferred by chronic violence exposure for poor cardiovascular health but not for poor mental health in underserved and highly stressed populations, such as street-identified Black Americans.

Keywords

systolic blood pressure anxiety depression trauma stress cannabis

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Abt

T. P.

(2017). Towards a framework for preventing community violence among youth. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 22(Suppl. 1), 266–285. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2016.1257815

Adesogan

Lavner

J. A.

Carter

S. E.

Beach

S. R.

(2024). Stress accumulation, depressive symptoms, and sleep problems among Black Americans in the rural South. Clinical Psychological Science, 12(3), 421–434. https://doi.org/10.1177/21677026231170839

Adlin

(2023, August 21). New Jersey uses marijuana revenue to fund violence prevention programs. Marijuana Moment. https://www.marijuanamoment.net/new-jersey-uses-marijuana-revenue-to-fund-violence-prevention-programs/

Albaugh

M. D.

Ottino-Gonzalez

Sidwell

Lepage

Juliano

Owens

M. M.

Chaarani

Spechler

Fontaine

Rioux

Lewis

Jeon

Evans

D’Souza

Radhakrishnan

Banaschewski

Bokde

A. L. W.

Quinlan

E. B.

Conrod

, . . . IMAGEN Consortium. (2021). Association of cannabis use during adolescence with neurodevelopment. JAMA Psychiatry, 78(9), 1031–1040. https://doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2021.1258

Alshaarawy

Elbaz

H. A.

(2016). Cannabis use and blood pressure levels: United States national health and nutrition examination survey, 2005–2012. Journal of Hypertension, 34(8), 1507–1512. https://doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0000000000000990

Anderson

(2000). Code of the street: Decency, violence, and the moral life of the inner city. W. W. Norton & Company.

Anderson

Brown

T. M.

Herr

Payne

Y. A.

(2025). Participatory action research and educational policy work: Democratizing policy knowledge. In Cohen-Vogel

Youngs

Scott

(Eds.), Handbook of educational policy research (pp. 663–682). AERA.

Aneshensel

C. S.

(2009). Neighborhood as a social context of the stress process. In Avison

W. R

Aneshensel

C. S.

Schieman

Wheaton

(Eds.), Advances in the conceptualization of the stress process: Essays in honor of Leonard I. Pearlin (pp. 35–52). Springer.

Antonik

(2024, May 3). Delaware releases draft recreational marijuana regulations. Delaware Business Times. https://delawarebusinesstimes.com/news/delawaremarijuanaregulations/#:~:text=The%20OMC%20was%20established%20last,creating%20a%20newly%20regulated%20industry

10.

Archibald

P. C.

Thorpe

R. J.

Jr. (2021). Life stressors and sleep problems as predictors of the likelihood of lifetime cannabis use among Black adults with criminal justice contact. Ethnicity & Disease, 31(2), 187–196. https://doi:10.18865/ed.31.2.187

11.

Badour

C. L.

Blonigen

D. M.

Boden

M. T.

Feldner

M. T.

Bonn-Miller

M. O.

(2012). A longitudinal test of the bi-directional relations between avoidance coping and PTSD severity during and after PTSD treatment. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 50(10), 610–616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2012.06.006

12.

Bonn-Miller

M. O.

Boden

M. T.

Bucossi

M. M.

Babson

K. A.

(2014). Self-reported cannabis use characteristics, patterns and helpfulness among medical cannabis users. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 40(1), 23–30. https://doi.org/10.3109/00952990.2013.821477

13.

Bordieri

M. J.

Tull

M. T.

McDermott

M. J.

Gratz

K. L.

(2014). The moderating role of experiential avoidance in the relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder symptom severity and cannabis dependence. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 3(4), 273–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcbs.2014.08.005

14.

Bounoua

Sadeh

Payne

Y. A.

Hitchens

B. K.

(2023). Structural barriers explain the link between negative community re-entry experiences and motives for illegal behavior in street-identified Black men and women. American Journal of Community Psychology, 73(1–2), 280–293. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12713

15.

Braga

A. A.

Papachristos

A. V.

Hureau

D. M.

(2010). The concentration and stability of gun violence at micro places in Boston, 1980–2008. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 26(1), 33–53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-009-9082-x

16.

Braga

A. A.

Weisburd

D. L.

Turchan

(2018). Focused deterrence strategies and crime control: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Criminology & Public Policy, 17(1), 205–250. https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12353

17.

Butts

J. A.

Roman

C. G.

Bostwick

Porter

J. R.

(2015). Cure violence: A public health model to reduce gun violence. Annual Review of Public Health, 36(1), 39–53. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-031914-122509

18.

Camchong

Lim

K. O.

Kumra

(2017). Adverse effects of cannabis on adolescent brain development: A longitudinal study. Cerebral Cortex, 27(3), 1922–1930. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhw015

19.

Carter

R. T.

Johnson

V. E.

Kirkinis

Roberson

Muchow

Galgay

(2019). A meta-analytic review of racial discrimination: Relationships to health and culture. Race and Social Problems, 11(1), 15–32.

20.

Chaturvedi

Zhu

Gadela

N. V.

Prabhakaran

Jafar

T. H.

(2024). Social determinants of health and disparities in hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. Hypertension, 81(3), 387–399. https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.123.21354

21.

Chen

B. C.

Lui

J. H. L.

Liu

Wright

B. A.

Benson

L. A.

Lin

Y.-J. R.

Lau

A. S.

(2024). Mapping racial/ethnic disparities in youth psychiatric emergencies and associations with neighborhood racial composition, child opportunity, and inequality. Clinical Psychological Science, 12(2), 203–219. https://doi.org/10.1177/21677026221121762

22.

Cheung

C. P.

Coates

A. M.

Baker

R. E.

Burr

J. F.

(2024). Acute effects of cannabis inhalation on arterial stiffness, vascular endothelial function, and cardiac function. Journal of the American Heart Association, 13(23), Article e037731. https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.124.03773

23.

Clark

Anderson

N. B.

Clark

V. R.

Williams

D. R.

(1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans. A biopsychosocial model. The American Psychologist, 54(10), 805–816.

24.

Collier

Z. K.

Kong

Soyoye

Chawla

Aviles

A. M.

Payne

(2024). Deep learning imputation for asymmetric and incomplete Likert-type Items. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 49(2), 241–267. https://doi.org/10.3102/10769986231176014

25.

Corroon

Grant

Bradley

Allison

M. A.

(2023). Trends in cannabis use, blood pressure, and hypertension in middle-aged adults: Findings from NHANES, 2009–2018. American Journal of Hypertension, 36(12), 651–659. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajh/hpad068

26.

Cougle

J. R.

Bonn-Miller

M. O.

Vujanovic

A. A.

Zvolensky

M. J.

Hawkins

K. A.

(2011). Posttraumatic stress disorder and cannabis use in a nationally representative sample. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 25(3), 554–558. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023076

27.

Cuttler

Spradlin

Nusbaum

A. T.

Whitney

Hinson

J. M.

McLaughlin

R. J.

(2017). Blunted stress reactivity in chronic cannabis users. Psychopharmacology, 234, 2299–2309. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-017-4648-z

28.

Dellazizzo

Potvin

Athanassiou

Dumais

(2020). Violence and cannabis use: A focused review of a forgotten aspect in the era of liberalizing cannabis. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11, Article 567887. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.567887

29.

Dunn

E. C.

Nishimi

Powers

Bradley

(2017). Is developmental timing of trauma exposure associated with depressive and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in adulthood?. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 84, 119–127.

30.

Elliott

Golub

Bennett

Guarino

(2015). PTSD and cannabis-related coping among recent veterans in New York City. Contemporary Drug Problems, 42(1), 60–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091450915570309

31.

Guidi

Lucente

Sonino

Fava

G. A.

(2020). Allostatic load and its impact on health: A systematic review. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 90(1), 11–27. https://doi.org/10.1159/000510696

32.

Haleem

Hwang

Y. J.

Elton-Marshall

Rehm

Imtiaz

(2021). The longitudinal relationship between cannabis use and hypertension. Drug and Alcohol Review, 40(6), 914–919. https://doi.org/10.1111/dar.13266

33.

Haller

(2023). Anxiety modulation by cannabinoids—The role of stress responses and coping. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 24(21), Article 15777. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms242115777

34.

Hammond

C. J.

Chaney

Hendrickson

Sharma

(2020). Cannabis use among US adolescents in the era of marijuana legalization: A review of changing use patterns, comorbidity, and health correlates. International Review of Psychiatry, 32(3), 221–234. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540261.2020.1713056

35.

Hathaway

A. D.

(2003). Cannabis effects and dependency concerns in long-term frequent users: A missing piece of the public health puzzle. Addiction Research & Theory, 11(6), 441–458. https://doi.org/10.1080/1606635021000041807

36.

Hitchens

B. K.

(2023). The cumulative effect of gun homicide-related loss on neighborhood perceptions among street-identified black women and girls: A mixed-methods study. Social Science & Medicine, 320, Article 115675. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.115675

37.

Hitchens

B. K.

(2025). Street participatory action research (street PAR) with hard-to-reach Black women and girls: Advancing an intersectional criminological approach. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 41(3), 630–648. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986225134143

38.

Hitchens

B. K.

Aviles

A. M.

McCallops

(2022). Mothering in the streets: Familial adaptation strategies of street-identified Black American mothers. Journal of Marriage and Family, 84(5), 1270–1290. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12848

39.

Hyman

S. M.

Sinha

(2009). Stress-related factors in cannabis use and misuse: Implications for prevention and treatment. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 36(4), 400–413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsat.2008.08.005

40.

Johnson

B. T.

Sisti

Bernstein

Chen

Hennessy

E. A.

Acabchuk

R. L.

Matos

(2021). Community-level factors and incidence of gun violence in the United States, 2014–2017. Social Science & Medicine, 280, Article 113969. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.113969

41.

Jorgensen

(2020, January 13). How marijuana legalization would benefit the criminal justice system. The Blue Review. https://www.boisestate.edu/bluereview/how-marijuana-legalization-would-benefit-the-criminal-justice-system/#:~:text=Recent%20research%20has%20shown%20that,avenue%20of%20raising%20tax%20revenue

42.

Kapur

Stenson

A. F.

Chiodo

L. M.

Delaney-Black

Hannigan

J. H.

Janisse

Ratner

H. H.

(2022). Childhood violence exposure predicts high blood pressure in Black American young adults. The Journal of Pediatrics, 248, 21–29.e1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2022.05.039

43.

Kedzior

K. K.

Laeber

L. T.

(2014). A positive association between anxiety disorders and cannabis use or cannabis use disorders in the general population-a meta-analysis of 31 studies. BMC Psychiatry, 14, Article 136. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-14-136

44.

Kevorkian

Bonn-Miller

M. O.

Belendiuk

Carney

D. M.

Roberson-Nay

Berenz

E. C.

(2015). Associations among trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder, cannabis use, and cannabis use disorder in a nationally representative epidemiologic sample. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 29(3), 633–638. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000110

45.

Knopov

Rothman

E. F.

Cronin

S. W.

Franklin

Cansever

Potter

Mesic

Sharma

Xuan

Siegel

Hemenway

(2019). The role of racial residential segregation in Black-White disparities in firearm homicide at the state level in the United States, 1991-2015. Journal of the National Medical Association, 111(1), 62–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnma.2018.06.002

46.

Kravitz-Wirtz

Bruns

Aubel

A. J.

Zhang

Buggs

S. A.

(2022). Inequities in community exposure to deadly gun violence by race/ethnicity, poverty, and neighborhood disadvantage among youth in large US cities. Journal of Urban Health, 99(4), 610–625. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-022-00656-0

47.

Krieger

(1999). Embodying inequality: A review of concepts, measures, and methods for studying health consequences of discrimination. International Journal of Health Services, 29(2), 295–352.

48.

Krivo

L. J.

Peterson

R. D.

Kuhl

D. C.

(2009). Segregation, racial structure, and neighborhood violent crime. American Journal of Sociology, 114(6), 1765–1802. https://doi.org/10.1086/597285

49.

Lorenzetti

Hoch

Hall

(2020). Adolescent cannabis use, cognition, brain health and educational outcomes: A review of the evidence. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 36, 169–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroneuro.2020.03.012

50.

Lubman

D. I.

Cheetham

Yücel

(2015). Cannabis and adolescent brain development. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 148, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pharmthera.2014.11.009

51.

MacDonald

Mohler

Brantingham

P. J.

(2022). Association between race, shooting hot spots, and the surge in gun violence during the COVID-19 pandemic in Philadelphia, New York and Los Angeles. Preventive Medicine, 165, Article 107241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2022.107241

52.

Machado

D. B.

de Siqueira Filha

N. T.

Cortes

Castro-de-Araujo

L. F.

Alves

F. J. O.

Ramos

Xavier

E. F.

Zanghelini

Rudgard

Humphreys

D. K.

Barreto

M. L.

(2024). The relationship between cash-based interventions and violence: A systematic review and evidence map. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 75, Article 101909. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2023.101909

53.

McEwen

B. S.

(2008). Central effects of stress hormones in health and disease: Understanding the protective and damaging effects of stress and stress mediators. European Journal of Pharmacology, 583(2–3), 174–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.11.071

54.

McEwen

B. S.

(2017). Neurobiological and systemic effects of chronic stress. Chronic Stress, 1, Article 2470547017692328. https://doi:10.1177/2470547017692328

55.

McEwen

B. S.

Wingfield

J. C.

(2003). The concept of allostasis in biology and biomedicine. Hormones and Behavior, 43(1), 2–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0018-506X(02)00024-7

56.

Middlekauff

H. R.

Cooper

Z. D.

Strauss

S. B.

(2022). Drugs of misuse: Focus on vascular dysfunction. Canadian Journal of Cardiology, 38(9), 1364–1377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cjca.2022.04.011

57.

Moore

T. M.

Stuart

G. L.

(2005). A review of the literature on marijuana and interpersonal violence. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 10(2), 171–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2003.10.002

58.

Oliphant

S. N.

Mouch

C. A.

Rowhani-Rahbar

Hargarten

Jay

Hemenway

Zimmerman

Carter

P. M.

, & FACTS Consortium. (2019). A scoping review of patterns, motives, and risk and protective factors for adolescent firearm carriage. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 42, 763–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-019-00048-x

59.

Payne

Y. A.

(2006). Participatory action research and social justice: Keys to freedom for street life oriented Black men. In Battle

Bennett

Lemelle

A. J.

, Jr. (Eds.), Free at last?: Black America in the twenty first century (pp. 265–280). Transaction Publisher.

60.

Payne

Y. A.

(2011). Site of resilience: A reconceptualization of resiliency and resilience in street life–oriented Black men. The Journal of Black Psychology, 37(4), 426–451. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798410394178

61.

Payne

Y. A.

(2017). Participatory action research. In Turner

B. S.

Kyung-Sup

Epstein

C. F.

Kivisto

Outhwaite’s

(Eds.), The Wiley Blackwell encyclopedia of social theory. WileyBlackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118430873.est0272

62.

Payne

Y. A.

Brown

T. M.

(2017). Martin Luther King, Jr. Lecture - “It’s set up for failure . . . and they know this!”: How the school-to-prison pipeline impacts the educational experiences of street identified Black youth and young adults. Villanova Law Review, 62(2), 307–325.

63.

Payne

Y. A.

Bryant

(2018). Street participatory action research in prison: A methodology to challenge privilege and power in correctional facilities. The Prison Journal, 98(4), 449–469. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032885518776378

64.

Payne

Y. A.

Hitchens

B. K.

Chambers

D. L.

(2023). Murder Town, USA: Homicide, structural violence, and activism in Wilmington. Rutgers University Press.

65.

Payne

Y. A.

Hitchens

B. K.

Wilson

(2024). Organizing The Streets to enact social justice: Street PAR in the age of gun violence and draconian policies. In Dolgon

(Ed.), The Oxford handbook of sociology for social justice (pp. 203–236). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197615317.013.38

66.

Payne

Y. A.

Sadeh

Hitchens

B. K.

Bounoua

(2023). Elevations in blood pressure associated with exposure to violence are mitigated by pro-gun-carrying attitudes among street-identified Black males and females. Journal of Urban Health, 101(1), 11–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-023-00787-y

67.

Polcari

A. M.

Slidell

M. B.

Hoefer

L. E.

Henry

M. C.

Zakrison

T. L.

Rogers

S. O.

Benjamin

A. J.

(2023). Social vulnerability and firearm violence: Geospatial analysis of 5 US cities. Journal of the American College of Surgeons, 237(6), 845–854. https://doi.10.1097/XCS.0000000000000845

68.

Rasmussen

Aber

M. S.

Bhana

(2004). Adolescent coping and neighborhood violence: Perceptions, exposure, and urban youths’ efforts to deal with danger. American Journal of Community Psychology, 33(1–2), 61–75. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:AJCP.0000014319.32655.66

69.

Rehman

Saini

Huang

Sood

Gill

Yanikomeroglu

(2021). Cannabis in the management of PTSD: A systematic review. AIMS Neuroscience, 8(3), 414–434. https://doi:10.3934/Neuroscience.2021022

70.

Rethy

Shah

N. S.

Paparello

J. J.

Lloyd-Jones

D. M.

Khan

S. S.

(2020). Trends in hypertension-related cardiovascular mortality in the United States, 2000 to 2018. Hypertension, 76(3), e23–e25. https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.120.15153

71.

Rich

J. A.

Grey

C. M.

(2005). Pathways to recurrent trauma among young Black men: Traumatic stress, substance use, and the “code of the street.” American Journal of Public Health, 95(5), 816–824. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2004.044560

72.

Richters

J. E.

Saltzman

(1990). Survey of exposure to community violence: Self-report version. JE Richters.

73.

Russo

E. B.

(2016). Current therapeutic cannabis controversies and clinical trial design issues. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 7, Article 309. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2016.00309

74.

Sadler

G. R.

Lee

H. C.

Lim

R. S. H.

Fullerton

(2010). Recruitment of hard-to-reach population subgroups via adaptations of the snowball sampling strategy. Nursing & Health Sciences, 12(3), 369–374. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-2018.2010.00541.x

75.

Sampson

R. J.

Raudenbush

S. W.

Earls

(1997). Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science, 277(5328), 918–924. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5328.918

76.

Sayers

W. M.

Sayette

M. A.

(2013). Suppression on your own terms: Internally generated displays of craving suppression predict rebound effects. Psychological Science, 24(9), 1740–1746. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613479977

77.

Scherma

Muntoni

A. L.

Riedel

Fratta

Fadda

(2020). Cannabinoids and their therapeutic applications in mental disorders. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 22(3), 271–279. https://doi.org/10.31887/DCNS.2020.22.3/pfadda

78.

Timko

Han

Woodhead

Shelley

Cucciare

M. A.

(2018). Polysubstance use by stimulant users: Health outcomes over three years. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 79(5), 799–807. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2018.79.799

79.

Tung

E. L.

Chua

R. F. M.

Besser

S. A.

Lindau

S. T.

Kolak

Anyanwu

E. C.

Liao

J. K.

Tabit

C. E.

(2019). Association of rising violent crime with blood pressure and cardiovascular risk: Longitudinal evidence from Chicago, 2014–2016. American Journal of Hypertension, 32(12), 1192–1198. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajh/hpz134

80.

Vallée

(2023). Association between cannabis use and blood pressure levels according to comorbidities and socioeconomic status. Scientific Reports, 13(1), Article 2069. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-22841-6

81.

Vaughan

A. S.

Coronado

Casper

Loustalot

Wright

J. S.

(2022). County-level trends in hypertension-related cardiovascular disease mortality—United States, 2000 to 2019. Journal of the American Heart Association, 11(7), Article e024785. https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.121.024785

82.

Vidot

D. C.

Powers

Gonzalez

Jayaweera

D. T.

Roy

Dong

Messiah

S. E.

(2019). Blood pressure and marijuana use: Results from a decade of NHANES data. American Journal of Health Behavior, 43(5), 887–897. https://doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.43.5.2

83.

Wang

Hagger

M. S.

Chatzisarantis

N. L.

(2020). Ironic effects of thought suppression: A meta-analysis. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 15(3), 778–793. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691619898795

84.

Ware

J. E.

Jr. Sherbourne

C. D.

(1992). The MOS 36-item short-form health survey (SF-36): I. Conceptual framework and item selection. Medical Care, 30(6), 473–483.

85.

Weisburd

White

(2019). Hot spots of crime are not just hot spots of crime: Examining health outcomes at street segments. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 35(2), 142–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1043986219832132

86.

Whelton

P. K.

Carey

R. M.

Aronow

W. S.

Casey

D. E.

Collins

K. J.

Dennison Himmelfarb

DePalma

S. M.

Gidding

Jamerson

K. A.

Jones

D. W.

MacLaughlin

E. J.

Muntner

Ovbiagele

Smith

S. C.

Spencer

C. C.

Stafford

R. S.

Taler

S. J.

Thomas

R. J.

Williams

K. A.

. . . Wright

J. T.

(2018). 2017 ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/AGS/APhA/ASH/ASPC/NMA/PCNA guideline for the prevention, detection, evaluation, and management of high blood pressure in adults: A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on clinical practice guidelines. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 71(19), e127–e248.

87.

Williams

D. R.

Jackson

J. S.

Anderson

N. B.

(1997). Racial differences in physical and mental health: Socio-economic status, stress and discrimination. Journal of Health Psychology, 2(3), 335–351.

88.

Wingo

A. P.

Wrenn

Pelletier

Gutman

A. R.

Bradley

Ressler

K. J.

(2010). Moderating effects of resilience on depression in individuals with a history of childhood abuse or trauma exposure. Journal of Affective Disorders, 126(3), 411–414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2010.04.009

89.

Wong

Bernstein

Jay

Siegel

(2020). Differences in racial disparities in firearm homicide across cities: The role of racial residential segregation and gaps in structural disadvantage. Journal of the National Medical Association, 112(5), 518–530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnma.2020.05.014

Violence Exposure Relates Differently to Blood Pressure and Emotional Health as a Function of Cannabis Use Among Street-Identified Black Americans

Abstract

Keywords

Get full access to this article

References