Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online 2025-11
Trajectories of Rumination and Negative Cognitive Style From Late Childhood Through Adolescence: Modeling Normative Growth Patterns and Predicting Cognitive Vulnerabilities
Negative cognitive style and rumination are prominent cognitive vulnerabilities (CVs) that contribute to development of psychopathology, especially internalizing problems. Yet little is known about trajectories of CVs across development (age) and gender and what predicts CVs. In this study, we characterized CV trajectories from ages 9 to 18 and investigated predictors of CV trajectories. Community youths (N = 607; age: M = 12.37 years; 55% girls) completed repeated assessments of CVs across 3 years; youths and parents were assessed for many CV predictors at baseline. Measurement invariance supported partial scalar for CVs across age and scalar invariance by gender. Quadratic age characterized rumination trajectories (decrease ages 9–12; increase ages 13–18); girls ruminated more than boys. Negative cognitive style showed no significant gender or age effects. Most baseline predictors (observed parental positive affect; youth temperament, personality-disorder traits, coping, emotion regulation, internalizing symptoms, history of major depressive disorder, and negative environmental contexts) predicted CV trajectories. Implications for theory and clinical application are discussed.
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