Despite the importance of psychopathy—a construct with robust relations with externalizing outcomes—little is known about how psychopathic traits manifest in middle-age to older adulthood. In the present investigation, we used a large and diverse sample of older adults from the St. Louis Personality and Aging Network to examine psychopathy’s nomological network and whether these traits change over four time points spanning approximately 10 years. We also explored whether these changes were associated with changes in other important constructs (e.g., physical and psychological functioning) across the same time span. Psychopathy was operationalized in two ways: (a) via the factors of the triarchic psychopathy model, Meanness, Disinhibition, and Boldness, and (b) using a more macro approach via the Five-Factor Model Psychopathy Resemblance Index. We found that (a) the nomological network of psychopathy appears to be consistent with what has been observed in samples of younger adults, (b) psychopathic traits remain stable over time as adults make the transition from midlife to later life, and (c) changes that were observed are significantly related to changes in several important outcomes, including physical health, mental health, relationship satisfaction, intimate-partner aggression, and social functioning.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.).
2.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.).
3.
AndersenD. M.VeltmanE.SellbomM. (2022). Surviving senior psychopathy: Informant reports of deceit and antisocial behavior in multiple types of relationships. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 66(15), 1703–1725. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624x211067089
4.
BeckA. T.SteerR. A.BrownG. K. (1996). Manual for the Beck Depression Inventory-II. Psychological Corporation.
BlackD. W.BaumgardC. H.BellS. E. (1995). A 16- to 45-year follow-up of 71 men with antisocial personality disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 36(2), 130–140.
7.
BlagovP. S.PatrickC. J.OostK. M.GoodmanJ. A.PughA. T. (2016). Triarchic psychopathy measure: Validity in relation to normal-range traits, personality pathology, and psychological adjustment. Journal of Personality Disorders, 30(1), 71–81. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi_2015_29_182
8.
BleidornW.SchwabaT.ZhengA.HopwoodC.SosaS. S.RobertsB. W.BrileyD. A. (2022). Personality stability and change: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 148(7–8), 588–619. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000365
9.
BonessC. L.WattsA. L.MoellerK. N.SherK. J. (2021). The etiologic, theory-based, ontogenetic hierarchical framework of Alcohol Use Disorder: A translational systematic review of reviews. Psychological Bulletin, 147(10), 1075–1123. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000333
10.
CleckleyH. M. (1941). The mask of sanity: An attempt to reinterpret the so-called psychopathic personality. Mosby.
11.
CollisonK. L.LynamD. R.MillerJ. D. (2023). The triarchic psychopathy model is embedded within the five-factor model: No need for reconfiguration. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 45(4), 1034–1045.
12.
CooperL. D.BalsisS.OltmannsT. F. (2014). Aging: Empirical contribution: A longitudinal analysis of personality disorder dimensions and personality traits in a community sample of older adults: Perspectives from selves and informants. Journal of Personality Disorders, 28(1), 151–165.
13.
CostaP. T.McCraeR. R. (1992). Professional manual: Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor-Inventory (NEO-FFI). Psychological Assessment Resources.
14.
CregoC.WidigerT. A. (2016). Cleckley’s psychopaths: Revisited. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 125(1), 75–87. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000130
15.
CurranP. J.ObeidatK.LosardoD. (2010). Twelve frequently asked questions about growth curve modeling. Journal of Cognition and Development, 11(2), 121–136. https://doi.org/10.1080/15248371003699969
16.
DottererH. L.WallerR.CopeL. M.HicksB. M.NiggJ. T.ZuckerR. A.HydeL. W. (2017). Concurrent and developmental correlates of psychopathic traits using a triarchic psychopathy model approach. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126(7), 859–876. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000302
17.
DrislaneL. E.BrislinS. J.JonesS.PatrickC. J. (2018). Interfacing five-factor model and triarchic conceptualizations of psychopathy. Psychological Assessment, 30(6), 834–840. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000544
18.
EdensJ. F.CahillM. A. (2007). Psychopathy in adolescence and criminal recidivism in young adulthood: Longitudinal results from a multiethnic sample of youthful offenders. Assessment, 14(1), 57–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191106290711
19.
EisenbarthH.HartC. M.ZechmeisterJ.KudielkaB. M.WüstS. (2021). Exploring the differential contribution of boldness, meanness, and disinhibition to explain externalising and internalising behaviours across genders. Current Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02134-3
20.
EndersC. K. (2010). Applied missing data analysis. The Guilford Press.
21.
EndersC. K.BandalosD. L. (2001). The relative performance of full information maximum likelihood estimation for missing data in structural equation models. Structural Equation Modeling, 8(3), 430–457.
22.
ForthA. E.HartS. D.HareR. D. (1990). Assessment of psychopathy in male young offenders. Psychological Assessment: A Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 2(3), 342–344. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.2.3.342
23.
FrickP. J.KimonisE. R.DandreauxD. M.FarellJ. M. (2003). The 4 year stability of psychopathic traits in non-referred youth. Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 21(6), 713–736. https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.568
24.
FrickP. J.RayJ. V.ThorntonL. C.KahnR. E. (2014). Can callous-unemotional traits enhance the understanding, diagnosis, and treatment of serious conduct problems in children and adolescents? A comprehensive review. Psychological Bulletin, 140(1), 1–57. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033076
25.
FrickP. J.WhiteS. F. (2008). Research review: The importance of callous-unemotional traits for developmental models of aggressive and antisocial behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49(4), 359–375. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01862.x
26.
GatnerD. T.DouglasK. S.AlmondM. F. E.HartS. D.KroppP. R. (2023). How much does that cost? Examining the economic costs of crime in North America attributable to people with psychopathic personality disorder. Personality Disorders, 14(4), 391–400. https://doi.org/10.1037/per0000575
27.
GoodboyA. K.MartinM. M. (2015). The personality profile of a cyberbully: Examining the Dark Triad. Computers in Human Behavior, 49, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.02.052
28.
GottfriedE. D.HarropT. M.AnestisJ. C.VenablesN. C.SellbomM. (2018). An examination of triarchic psychopathy constructs in female offenders. Journal of Personality Assessment, 101(5), 455–467. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2018.1502193
29.
HareR. D. (1980). A research scale for the assessment of psychopathy in criminal populations. Personality and Individual Differences, 1, 111–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(80)90028-8
30.
HareR. D. (1991). The Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R). Multi-Health Systems.
HawesS. W.ByrdA. L.GonzalezR.CavanaghC.BechtoldJ.LynamD. R.PardiniD. A. (2018). The developmental course of psychopathic features: Investigating stability, change, and long-term outcomes. Journal of Research in Personality, 77, 83–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2018.09.009
HemphillJ. F.HareR. D.WongS. (1998). Psychopathy and recidivism: A review. Legal and Criminological Psychology, 3(1), 139–170.
35.
HuchzermeierC.GeigerF.KöhlerD.BrussE.GodtN.HinrichsG.AldenhoffJ. B. (2008). Are there age-related effects in antisocial personality disorders and psychopathy?Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine, 15, 213–218.
36.
HyattC. S.CroweM. L.LynamD. R.MillerJ. D. (2019). Components of the Triarchic Model of Psychopathy and the Five-Factor Model domains share largely overlapping nomological networks. Assessment, 27(1), 72–88. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191119860903
37.
JonesD. N. (2014). Risk in the face of retribution: Psychopathic individuals persist in financial misbehavior among the Dark Triad. Personality and Individual Differences, 67, 109–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.01.030
38.
KramerM. (2018). Alcohol pathology and the Triarchic Model of Psychopathy: The role of protective behavioral strategies and impulsivity (No. 6017). Electronic Theses and Dissertations, STARS University of Central Florida. https://stars.library.ucf.edu/etd/6017
39.
LilienfeldS. O.AndrewsB. P. (1996). Development and preliminary validation of a self-report measure of psychopathic personality traits in noncriminal populations. Journal of Personality Assessment, 66(3), 448–524. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa6603_3
40.
LilienfeldS. O.PatrickC. J.BenningS. D.BergJ.SellbomM.EdensJ. F. (2012). The role of fearless dominance in psychopathy: Confusions, controversies, and clarifications. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 3(3), 327–340. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026987
LynamD. R. (1997). Pursuing the psychopath: Capturing the fledgling psychopath in a nomological net. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106(3), 425–438. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843x.106.3.425
43.
LynamD. R. (1998). Early identification of the fledgling psychopath: Locating the psychopathic child in the current nomenclature. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107(4), 566–575. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843x.107.4.566
44.
LynamD. R. (2011). Psychopathy and narcissism. In CampbellW. K.MillerJ. D. (Eds.), The handbook of narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder: Theoretical approaches, empirical findings, and treatments (pp. 272–282). John Wiley & Sons.
45.
LynamD. R.CaspiA.MoffittT. E.LoeberR.Stouthamer-LoeberM. (2007). Longitudinal evidence that psychopathy scores in early adolescence predict adult psychopathy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116(1), 155–165. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843x.116.1.155
46.
LynamD. R.CharnigoR.MoffittT. E.RaineA.LoeberR.Stouthamer-LoeberM. (2009). The stability of psychopathy across adolescence. Development & Psychopathology, 21, 1133–1153.
47.
LynamD. R.MillerJ. D. (2015). Psychopathy from a basic trait perspective: The utility of a five-factor model approach. Journal of Personality, 83(6), 611–626. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12132
48.
LynamD. R.WidigerT. A. (2007). Using a general model of personality to identify the basic elements of psychopathy. Journal of Personality Disorders, 21(2), 160–178. https://doi.org/10.1521/pedi.2007.21.2.160
49.
McGlashanT. H.GriloC. M.SanislowC. A.RalevskiE.MoreyL. C.GundersonJ. G.SkodolA. E.SheaM. T.ZanariniM. C.BenderD.StoutR. L.YenS.PaganoM. (2005). Two-year prevalence and stability of individual DSM-IV criteria for schizotypal, borderline, avoidant, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders: Toward a hybrid model of axis II disorders. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 162(5), 883–889. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.5.883
50.
MillerJ. D. (2012). Five-Factor Model personality disorder prototypes: A review of their development, validity, and comparison to alternative approaches. Journal of Personality, 80(6), 1565–1591. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2012.00773.x
51.
MillerJ. D.LynamD. R. (2003). Psychopathy and the Five-Factor model of personality: A replication and extension. Journal of Personality Assessment, 81(2), 168–178. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa8102_08
52.
MillerJ. D.LynamD. R. (2012). An examination of the psychopathic personality inventory’s nomological network: A meta-analytic review. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 3(3), 305–326. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024567
53.
MillerJ. D.LynamD. R. (2015). Understanding psychopathy using the basic elements of personality. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 9(5), 223–237. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12170
54.
MillerJ. D.LynamD.WidigerT.LeukefeldC. (2001). Personality disorders as extreme variants of common personality dimensions: Can the five-factor model adequately represent psychopathy?Journal of Personality, 69, 253–276.
55.
MoffittT. E. (1993). Adolescence-limited and life-course-persistent antisocial behavior: A developmental taxonomy. Psychological Review, 100(4), 674–701.
56.
MurisP.MerckelbachH.OtgaarH.MeijerE. (2017). The malevolent side of human nature: A meta-analysis and critical review of the literature on the dark triad (narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy). Perspectives on Psychological Science, 12(2), 183–204. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691616666070
57.
OltmannsJ. R.JacksonJ. J.OltmannsT. F. (2020). Personality change: Longitudinal self-other agreement and convergence with retrospective-reports. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 118(5), 1065–1079.
58.
OltmannsT. F.BalsisS. (2011). Personality disorders in later life: Questions about the measurement, course, and impact of disorders. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 7, 321–349.
59.
OltmannsT. F.GleasonM. E. J. (2011). Personality, health, and social adjustment in later life. Oxford University Press.
60.
OltmannsT. F.RodriguesM. M.WeinsteinY.GleasonM. E. (2014). Prevalence of personality disorders at midlife in a community sample: Disorders and symptoms reflected in interview, self, and informant reports. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 36(2), 177–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-013-9389-7
61.
PatrickC. J.DrislaneL. E. (2014). Triarchic model of psychopathy: Origins, operationalizations, and observed linkages with personality and general psychopathology. Journal of Personality, 83(6), 627–643. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12119
62.
PatrickC. J.FowlesD. C.KruegerR. F. (2009). Triarchic conceptualization of psychopathy: Developmental origins of disinhibition, boldness, and meanness. Development and Psychopathology, 21, 913–938.
63.
PaulS. E.WinogradR. P.OltmannsT. F. (2021). Personality pathology and substance misuse in later life: Perspectives from interviewer-, self-, and informant-reports. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 43(3), 597–619.
64.
PisanoS.MuratoriP.GorgaC.LevantiniV.IulianoR.CatoneG.CoppolaG.MiloneA.MasiG. (2017). Conduct disorders and psychopathy in children and adolescents: Aetiology, clinical presentation and treatment strategies of callous-unemotional traits. Italian Journal of Pediatrics, 43, Article 84. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13052-017-0404-6
65.
PutkonenH.Weizmann-HeneliusG.Repo-TiihonenE.LindbergN.SaarelaT.EronenM.Häkkänen-NyholmH. (2010). Homicide, psychopathy, and aging—A nationwide register-based case-comparison study of homicide offenders aged 60 years or older. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 55(6), 1552–1556. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1556-4029.2010.01488.x
66.
R Core Team. (2021). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. https:///www.R-project.org/
67.
RosseelY. (2012). lavaan: An R package for structural equation modelling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48(2), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02
68.
SabourinS.ValoisP.LussierY. (2005). Development and validation of a brief version of the dyadic adjustment scale with a nonparametric item analysis model. Psychological Assessment, 17(1), 15–27. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.17.1.15
69.
SleepC. E.WeissB.LynamD. R.MillerJ. D. (2019). An examination of the Triarchic Model of psychopathy’s nomological network: A meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 71, 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2019.04.005
70.
SouthS. C.BoudreauxM. J.OltmannsT. F. (2020). The impact of personality disorders on longitudinal change in relationship satisfaction in long-term married couples. Journal of Personality Disorders, 34(4), 439–458.
71.
SouthS. C.BoudreauxM. J.OltmannsT. F. (2021). Personality disorders and intimate partner aggression: A replication and extension in older, married couples. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 12(1), 70–80. https://doi.org/10.1037/per0000458
72.
SouthS. C.BoudreauxM. J.OltmannsT. F. (2022). Childhood maltreatment, personality pathology, and intimate partner aggression. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(23–24), NP23107–NP23130. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605221076164
73.
StrausM. A.HambyS. L.Boney-McCoyS.SugarmanD. B. (1996). The revised Conflict Tactics Scales (CTS2): Development and preliminary psychometric data. Journal of Family Issues, 17(3), 283–316. https://doi.org/10.1177/019251396017003001
74.
VachonD. D.LynamD. R.WidigerT. A.MillerJ. D.McCraeR. R.CostaP. T. (2013). Basic traits predict the prevalence of personality disorder across the life span: The example of psychopathy. Psychological Science, 24(5), 698–705.
75.
VaillantG. E.Hiller-SturmhöfelS. (1996). The natural history of alcoholism. Alcohol Health and Research World, 20(3), 152–161.
76.
WallerR.TrentacostaC. J.ShawD. S.NeiderhiserJ. M.GanibanJ. M.ReissD.LeveL. D.HydeL. W. (2016). Heritable temperament pathways to early callous-unemotional behaviour. British Journal of Psychiatry, 209(6), 275–282. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.116.181503
77.
WeissmanM. M. (1999). SAS-SR question booklet. Multi Health Systems.
78.
WidigerT. A.CregoC. (2018). Psychopathy and DSM-5. In PatrickJ. (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (2nd ed., pp. 281–296). The Guilford Press.
79.
WrightA. J.WestonS. J.NortonS.VossM.BogdanR.OltmannsT. F.JacksonJ. J. (2022). Prospective self- and informant-personality associations with inflammation, health behaviors, and health indicators. Health Psychology, 41(2), 121–133.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
