Characterizing Typologies of Polytraumatization: A Replication and Extension Study Examining Internalizing and Externalizing Psychopathology in an Urban Population

Abstract

A person-centered approach to examining trauma has uncovered typologies of polytraumatization that are differentially associated with psychopathology. However, previous research is limited by narrow conceptualizations of trauma, limited distal outcomes, and underrepresentation of racially marginalized groups. To address these gaps, we used latent profile analysis to uncover distinct polytraumatization typologies and examine four symptom-based (posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, aggression, and substance abuse) and two behavior-based (self-harm, jail counts) outcomes in a sample of adults with low socioeconomic resources (N = 7,426, 94% African American). The models were indicated by 19 traumatic experiences (e.g., accident, sexual assault, witnessing/experiencing violence). The best fitting model uncovered five classes: minimal trauma, physical abuse, violence exposure, sexual abuse, and polytrauma. Classes characterized by significant and varied trauma were higher on both internalizing and externalizing psychopathology, whereas those characterized by specific types of trauma were higher on only one type of psychopathology. Implications for the assessment and treatment of trauma-related disorders are discussed.

Keywords

aggressive behavior depression minority groups posttraumatic stress disorder trauma

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Agorastos

Pittman

J. O. E.

Angkaw

A. C.

Nievergelt

C. M.

Hansen

C. J.

Aversa

L. H.

Parisi

S. A.

Barkauskas

D. A.

Baker

D. G.

(2014). The cumulative effect of different childhood trauma types on self-reported symptoms of adult male depression and PTSD, substance abuse and health-related quality of life in a large active-duty military cohort. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 58, 46–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.07.014

Alisic

Zalta

A. K.

Van Wesel

Larsen

S. E.

Hafstad

G. S.

Hassanpour

Smid

G. E.

(2014). Rates of post-traumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed children and adolescents: Meta-analysis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 205(5), 335–340. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.113.131227

American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.).

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596

Armour

Elklit

Christoffersen

M. N.

(2014). A latent class analysis of childhood maltreatment: Identifying abuse typologies. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 19(1), 23–39.

Armour

Sleath

(2014). Assessing the co-occurrence of intimate partner violence domains across the life-course: Relating typologies to mental health. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 5(1), Article 24620. https://doi.org/10.3402/ejpt.v5.24620

Asparouhov

Muthén

(2012, May 22). Using Mplus TECH11 and TECH14 to test the number of latent classes (Mplus Web Notes 14). https://www.statmodel.com/examples/webnotes/webnote14.pdf

Asparouhov

Muthén

(2014). Auxiliary variables in mixture modeling: Three-step approaches using Mplus. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 21(3), 329–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2014.915181

Bandeen-Roche

Miglioretti

D. L.

Zeger

S. L.

Rathouz

P. J.

(1997). Latent variable regression for multiple discrete outcomes. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 92(440), 1375–1386. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1997.10473658

10.

Beck

A. T.

Steer

R. A.

Brown

G. K.

(1996). Beck Depression Inventory-II. Psychological Corporation.

11.

Bresin

Mekawi

(2019). Do marijuana use motives matter? Meta-analytic associations with marijuana use frequency and problems. Addictive Behaviors, 99, Article 106102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.106102

12.

Breslau

(2002). Epidemiologic studies of trauma, posttraumatic stress disorder, and other psychiatric disorders. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry/Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie, 47(10), 923–929. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674370204701003

13.

Breslau

Peterson

E. L.

Poisson

L. M.

Schultz

L. R.

Lucia

V. C.

(2004). Estimating post-traumatic stress disorder in the community: Lifetime perspective and the impact of typical traumatic events. Psychological Medicine, 34(5), 889–898. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291703001612

14.

Briere

Agee

Dietrich

(2016). Cumulative trauma and current posttraumatic stress disorder status in general population and inmate samples. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 8(4), 439–446. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000107

15.

Burns

C. R.

Lagdon

Boyda

Armour

(2016). Interpersonal polyvictimization and mental health in males. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 40, 75–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.04.002

16.

Carbone-López

Kruttschnitt

Macmillan

(2006). Patterns of intimate partner violence and their associations with physical health, psychological distress, and substance use. Public Health Reports, 121(4), 382–392. https://doi.org/10.1177/003335490612100406

17.

Carlson

B. E.

Shafer

M. S.

(2010). Traumatic histories and stressful life events of incarcerated parents: Childhood and adult trauma histories. The Prison Journal, 90(4), 475–493. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032885510382224

18.

Carrington

C. H.

(2006). Clinical depression in African American women: Diagnoses, treatment, and research. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62(7), 779–791. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20289

19.

Cavanaugh

C. E.

Martins

S. S.

Petras

Campbell

J. C.

(2013). Mental disorders associated with subpopulations of women affected by violence and abuse. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 26(4), 459–466. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.21821

20.

Cavanaugh

C. E.

Messing

J. T.

Petras

Fowler

La Flair

Kub

Agnew

Fitzgerald

Bolyard

Campbell

J. C.

(2012). Patterns of violence against women: A latent class analysis. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 4(2), 169–176. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023314

21.

Celeux

Soromenho

(1996). An entropy criterion for assessing the number of clusters in a mixture model. Journal of Classification, 13(2), 195–212. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01246098

22.

Cocco

K. M.

Carey

K. B.

(1998). Psychometric properties of the drug abuse screening test in psychiatric outpatients. Psychological Assessment, 10(4), 408–414. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.10.4.408

23.

Coffey

S. F.

Dansky

B. S.

Falsetti

S. A.

Saladin

M. E.

Brady

K. T.

(1998). Screening for PTSD in a substance abuse sample: Psychometric properties of a modified version of the PTSD symptom scale self-report. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 11(2), 393–399. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024467507565

24.

Collier

Z. K.

Leite

W. L.

(2017). A comparison of three-step approaches for auxiliary variables in latent class and latent profile analysis. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 24(6), 819–830. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2017.1365304

25.

Contractor

A. A.

Caldas

Fletcher

Shea

M. T.

Armour

(2018). Empirically derived lifespan polytraumatization typologies: A systematic review. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 74(7), 1137–1159. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22586

26.

Copeland

W. E.

Shanahan

Hinesley

Chan

R. F.

Aberg

K. A.

Fairbank

J. A.

van den Oord

E. J. C. G.

Costello

E. J.

(2018). Association of childhood trauma exposure with adult psychiatric disorders and functional outcomes. JAMA Network Open, 1(7), Article e184493. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.4493

27.

Cuevas

C. A.

Finkelhor

Ormrod

Turner

(2009). Psychiatric diagnosis as a risk marker for victimization in a national sample of children. Journal of Inter-personal Violence, 24(4), 636–652. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260508317197

28.

Dean

Raftery

A. E.

(2010). Latent class analysis variable selection. Annals of the Institute of Statistical Mathematics, 62(1), 11–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10463-009-0258-9

29.

D’Unger

A. V.

Land

K. C.

McCall

P. L.

Nagin

D. S.

(1998). How many latent classes of delinquent/criminal careers? Results from mixed Poisson regression analyses. American Journal of Sociology, 103(6), 1593–1630. https://doi.org/10.1086/231402

30.

Dunn

E. C.

Nishimi

Powers

Bradley

(2017). Is developmental timing of trauma exposure associated with depressive and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in adulthood? Journal of Psychiatric Research, 84, 119–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2016.09.004

31.

Ellard

K. K.

Fairholme

C. P.

Boisseau

C. L.

Farchione

T. J.

Barlow

D. H.

(2010). Unified protocol for the transdiagnostic treatment of emotional disorders: Protocol development and initial outcome data. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 17(1), 88–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbpra.2009.06.002

32.

English

Jones

Nagin

Runyan

(2013). Linking childhood sexual abuse and early adolescent risk behavior: The intervening role of internalizing and externalizing problems. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 41(1), 139–150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-012-9656-1

33.

Falsetti

S. A.

Resnick

H. S.

Resick

P. A.

Kilpatrick

D. G.

(1993). The Modified PTSD Symptom Scale: A brief self-report measure of posttraumatic stress disorder. The Behavior Therapist, 16, 161–162.

34.

Feiring

Simon

V. A.

Cleland

C. M.

(2009). Childhood sexual abuse, stigmatization, internalizing symptoms, and the development of sexual difficulties and dating aggression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77(1), 127–137. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013475

35.

Foa

E. B.

Chrestman

K. R.

Gilboa-Schechtman

(2008). Prolonged exposure therapy for adolescents with PTSD emotional processing of traumatic experiences, therapist guide. Oxford University Press.

36.

Ford

J. D.

Hartman

J. K.

Hawke

Chapman

J. F.

(2008). Traumatic victimization, posttraumatic stress disorder, suicidal ideation, and substance abuse risk among juvenile justice-involved youth. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 1(1), 75–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/19361520801934456

37.

Fox

B. H.

Perez

Cass

Baglivio

M. T.

Epps

(2015). Trauma changes everything: Examining the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and serious, violent and chronic juvenile offenders. Child Abuse and Neglect, 46, 163–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.01.011

38.

French

M. T.

Roebuck

M. C.

McGeary

K. A.

Chitwood

D. D.

McCoy

C. B.

(2001). Using the drug abuse screening test (DAST-10) to analyze health services utilization and cost for substance users in a community-based setting. Substance Use and Misuse, 36(6–7), 927–943. https://doi.org/10.1081/JA-100104096

39.

Gillespie

C. F.

Bradley

Mercer

Smith

A. K.

Conneely

Gapen

Weiss

Schwartz

A. C.

Cubells

J. F.

Ressler

K. J.

(2009). Trauma exposure and stress-related disorders in inner city primary care patients. General Hospital Psychiatry, 31(6), 505–514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2009.05.003

40.

Golder

Connell

C. M.

Sullivan

T. P.

(2012). Psychological distress and substance use among community-recruited women currently victimized by intimate partners: A latent class analysis and examination of between-class differences. Violence Against Women, 18(8), 934–957. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801212456991

41.

Graham

Legarreta

North

DiMuzio

McGlade

Yurgelun-Todd

(2016). A preliminary study of DSM-5 PTSD symptom patterns in veterans by trauma type. Military Psychology, 28(2), 115–122. https://doi.org/10.1037/mil0000092

42.

Gray

M. J.

Litz

B. T.

Hsu

J. L.

Lombardo

T. W.

(2004). Psychometric properties of the life events checklist. Assessment, 11(4), 330–341. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191104269954

43.

Grella

C. E.

Stein

J. A.

Greenwell

(2005). Associations among childhood trauma, adolescent problem behaviors, and adverse adult outcomes in substance-abusing women offenders. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 19(1), 43–53. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-164X.19.1.43

44.

Gustafsson

P. E.

Nilsson

Svedin

C. G.

(2009). Polytraumatization and psychological symptoms in children and adolescents. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 18(5), 274–283. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-008-0728-2

45.

Himle

J. A.

Baser

R. E.

Taylor

R. J.

Campbell

R. D.

Jackson

J. S.

(2009). Anxiety disorders among African Americans, blacks of Caribbean descent, and non-Hispanic whites in the United States. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23(5), 578–590. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.01.002

46.

Hipp

J. R.

Bauer

D. J.

(2006). Local solutions in the estimation of growth mixture models. Psychological Methods, 11(1), 36–53. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.11.1.36

47.

Holt

M. K.

Felix

Grimm

Nylund-Gibson

Green

J. G.

Poteat

V. P.

Zhang

(2017). A latent class analysis of past victimization exposures as predictors of college mental health. Psychology of Violence, 7(4), 521–532. https://doi.org/10.1037/vio0000068

48.

Howgego

I. M.

Owen

Meldrum

Yellowlees

Dark

Parslow

(2005). Posttraumatic stress disorder: An exploratory study examining rates of trauma and PTSD and its effect on client outcomes in community mental health. BMC Psychiatry, 5(1), Article 21. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-5-21

49.

Humphreys

K. L.

Foley

K. M.

Feinstein

B. A.

Marx

B. P.

Kaloupek

D. G.

Keane

T. M.

(2012). The influence of externalizing comorbidity on psychophysiological reactivity among veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 4(2), 145–151. http://doi.org/10.1037/a0022644

50.

Kaplow

J. B.

Widom

C. S.

(2007). Age of onset of child maltreatment predicts long-term mental health outcomes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 116(1), 176–187. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.116.1.176

51.

Katz

D. A.

Sprang

Cooke

(2012). The cost of chronic stress in childhood: Understanding and applying the concept of allostatic load. Psychodynamic Psychiatry, 40(3), 469–480. https://doi.org/10.1521/pdps.2012.40.3.469

52.

Kilpatrick

D. G.

Saunders

B. E.

Amick-McMullan

Best

C. L.

Veronen

L. J.

Resnick

H. S.

(1989). Victim and crime factors associated with the development of crime-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Behavior Therapy, 20(2), 199–214. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0005-7894(89)80069-3

53.

Kubany

E. S.

Leisen

M. B.

Kaplan

A. S.

Watson

S. B.

Haynes

S. N.

Owens

J. A.

Burns

(2000). Development and preliminary validation of a brief broad-spectrum measure of trauma exposure: The Traumatic Life Events Questionnaire. Psychological Assessment, 12(2), 210–224. https://doi.org/10.1037//1040-3590.12.2.210

54.

Lanza

S. T.

Rhoades

B. L.

(2013). Latent class analysis: An alternative perspective on subgroup analysis in prevention and treatment. Prevention Science, 14(2), 157–168. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-011-0201-1

55.

Lanza

S. T.

Tan

Bray

B. C.

(2013). Latent class analysis with distal outcomes: A flexible model-based approach. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 20(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2013.742377

56.

Laursen

Hoff

(2006). Person-centered and variable-centered approaches to longitudinal data. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 52, 377–389. https://doi.org/10.2307/23096200

57.

LeBouthillier

D. M.

McMillan

K. A.

Thibodeau

M. A.

Asmundson

G. J. G.

(2015). Types and number of traumas associated with suicidal ideation and suicide attempts in PTSD: Findings from a U.S. nationally representative sample. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 28(3), 183–190. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22010

58.

Masyn

K. E.

(2013). Latent class analysis and finite mixture modeling. In Little

T. D.

(Ed.), Oxford library of psychology. The Oxford handbook of quantitative methods: Statistical analysis (pp. 551–611). Oxford University Press.

59.

McCutcheon

V. V.

Heath

A. C.

Nelson

E. C.

Bucholz

K. K.

Madden

P. A. F.

Martin

N. G.

(2010). Clustering of trauma and associations with single and co-occurring depression and panic attack over twenty years. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 13(1), 57–65. https://doi.org/10.1375/twin.13.1.57

60.

McFarlane

A. C.

(2010). The long-term costs of traumatic stress: Intertwined physical and psychological consequences. World Psychiatry, 9(1), 3–10. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2051-5545.2010.tb00254.x

61.

Moore

L. D.

Elkavich

(2008). Who’s using, and who’s doing time: Incarceration, the war on drugs, and public health. American Journal of Public Health, 98(Suppl. 1), 176–180. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2007.126284

62.

Muthén

Asparouhov

(2008). Growth mixture modeling: Analysis with non-Gaussian random effects. In Fitzmaurice

Davidian

Verbeke

Molenberghs

(Eds.), Longitudinal data analysis (pp. 143–165). CRC Press.

63.

Muthén

L. K.

Muthén

B. O.

(2017). Mplus user’s guide (8th ed.).

64.

Nagin

D. S.

(2005). Group-based modeling of development. Harvard University Press.

65.

Najarian

L. M.

Goenjian

A. K.

Pelcovitz

Mandel

Najarian

(2001). The effect of relocation after a natural disaster. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 14(3), 511–526. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1011108622795

66.

Nylund

K. L.

Asparouhov

Muthén

B. O.

(2007). Deciding on the number of classes in latent class analysis and growth mixture modeling: A Monte Carlo simulation study. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 14(4), 535–569. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510701575396

67.

Nylund-Gibson

Choi

A. Y.

(2018). Ten frequently asked questions about latent class analysis. Translational Issues in Psychological Science, 4(4), 440–461. https://doi.org/10.1037/tps0000176

68.

Resick

P. A.

Schnicke

M. K.

(1992). Cognitive processing therapy for sexual assault victims. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60(5), 748–756. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.60.5.748

69.

Roberts

A. L.

Gilman

S. E.

Breslau

Koenen

K. C.

(2011). Race/ethnic differences in exposure to traumatic events, development of post-traumatic stress disorder, and treatment-seeking for post-traumatic stress disorder in the United States. Psychological Medicine, 41(1), 71–83. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291710000401

70.

Sawyer

A. L.

Bradshaw

C. P.

O’Brennan

L. M.

(2008). Examining ethnic, gender, and developmental differences in the way children report being a victim of “Bullying” on self-report measures. Journal of Adolescent Health, 43(2), 106–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.12.011

71.

Scarpa

Ollendick

T. H.

(2003). Community violence exposure in a young adult sample: III. Psychophysiology and victimization interact to affect risk for aggression. Journal of Community Psychology, 31(4), 321–338. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.10058

72.

Schwartz

A. C.

Bradley

R. L.

Sexton

Sherry

Ressler

K. J.

(2005). Posttraumatic Stress Disorder among African Americans in an inner city mental health clinic. Psychiatric Services, 56(2), 212–215. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.56.2.212

73.

Schwarz

(1978). Estimating the dimension of a model. The Annals of Statistics, 6(2), 461–464. https://doi.org/10.1214/AOS/1176344136

74.

Skinner

H. A.

(1982). The drug abuse screening test. Addictive Behaviors, 7(4), 363–371. https://doi.org/10.1016/0306-4603(82)90005-3

75.

Spilsbury

J. C.

Belliston

Drotar

Drinkard

Kretschmar

Creeden

Flannery

D. J.

Friedman

(2007). Clinically significant trauma symptoms and behavioral problems in a community-based sample of children exposed to domestic violence. Journal of Family Violence, 22(6), 487–499. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-007-9113-z

76.

Stein

D. J.

Chiu

W. T.

Hwang

Kessler

R. C.

Sampson

Alonso

Borges

Bromet

Bruffaerts

de Girolamo

Florescu

Gureje

Kovess-Masfety

Levinson

Matschinger

Mneimneh

Nakamura

Ormel

. . . Nock

M. K.

(2010). Cross-national analysis of the associations between traumatic events and suicidal behavior: Findings from the WHO world mental health surveys. PLOS ONE, 5(5), Article e10574. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0010574

77.

Stockman

J. K.

Hayashi

Campbell

J. C.

(2015). Intimate partner violence and its health impact on disproportionately affected populations, including minorities and impoverished groups. Journal of Women’s Health, 24(1), 62–79. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2014.4879

78.

Straus

M. A.

Hamby

S. L.

Boney-McCoy

Sugarman

D. B.

(1996). The revised conflict tactics scales (CTS2) development and preliminary psychometric data. Journal of Family Issues, 17(3), 283–316. https://doi.org/10.1177/019251396017003001

79.

Suliman

Mkabile

S. G.

Fincham

D. S.

Ahmed

Stein

D. J.

Seedat

(2009). Cumulative effect of multiple trauma on symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder, anxiety, and depression in adolescents. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 50(2), 121–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2008.06.006

80.

Vermunt

J. K.

(2010). Latent class modeling with covariates: Two improved three-step approaches. Political Analysis, 18, 450–469. https://doi.org/10.2307/25792024

81.

Walsh

J. L.

Senn

T. E.

Carey

M. P.

(2012). Exposure to different types of violence and subsequent sexual risk behavior among female sexually transmitted disease clinic patients: A latent class analysis. Psychology of Violence, 2(4), 339–354. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027716

82.

Wang

Y.-P.

Gorenstein

(2013). Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory-II: A comprehensive review. Revista Brasileira De Psiquiatria, 35(4), 416–431. https://doi.org/10.1590/1516-4446-2012-1048

83.

Wanklyn

S. G.

Belus

J. M.

Pukay-Martin

N. D.

Cyr

K. S.

Girard

T. A.

Monson

C. M.

(2016). Trauma types as differential predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), major depressive disorder (MDD), and their comorbidity. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 48(4), 296–305. https://doi.org/10.1037/cbs0000056

84.

Widom

C. S.

Czaja

S. J.

Kozakowski

S. S.

Chauhan

(2018). Does adult attachment style mediate the relationship between childhood maltreatment and mental and physical health outcomes? Child Abuse & Neglect, 76, 533–545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.05.002

85.

Wingo

A. P.

Ressler

K. J.

Bradley

(2014). Resilience characteristics mitigate tendency for harmful alcohol and illicit drug use in adults with a history of childhood abuse: A cross-sectional study of 2024 inner-city men and women. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 51(1), 93–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.01.007

86.

Wurpts

I. C.

Geiser

(2014). Is adding more indicators to a latent class analysis beneficial or detrimental? Results of a Monte-Carlo study. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, Article 920. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00920

87.

Yang

Cheng

Bai

Shen

Liu

Jiang

Chen

Sun

(2017). Childhood maltreatment is associated with gray matter volume abnormalities in patients with first-episode depression. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging, 268, 27–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pscychresns.2017.07.005

88.

Young-Wolff

K. C.

Hellmuth

Jaquier

Swan

S. C.

Connell

Sullivan

T. P.

(2013). Patterns of resource utilization and mental health symptoms among women exposed to multiple types of victimization: A latent class analysis. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 28(15), 3059–3083. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260513488692

89.

Zatzick

Jurkovich

G. J.

Rivara

F. P.

Wang

Fan

M. Y.

Joesch

MacKenzie

(2008). A national US study of posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, and work and functional outcomes after hospitalization for traumatic injury. Annals of Surgery, 248(3), 429–435. https://doi.org/10.1097/SLA.0b013e318185a6b8

90.

Zinzow

H. M.

Ruggiero

K. J.

Resnick

Hanson

Smith

Saunders

Kilpatrick

(2009). Prevalence and mental health correlates of witnessed parental and community violence in a national sample of adolescents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 50(4), 441–450. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02004

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.20 MB