Trait impulsivity—defined by strong preference for immediate over delayed rewards and difficulties inhibiting prepotent behaviors—is observed in all externalizing disorders, including substance-use disorders. Many laboratory tasks have been developed to identify decision-making mechanisms and correlates of impulsive behavior, but convergence between task measures and self-reports of impulsivity are consistently low. Long-standing theories of personality and decision-making predict that neurally mediated individual differences in sensitivity to (a) reward cues and (b) punishment cues (frustrative nonreward) interact to affect behavior. Such interactions obscure one-to-one correspondences between single personality traits and task performance. We used hierarchical Bayesian analysis in three samples with differing levels of substance use (N = 967) to identify interactive dependencies between trait impulsivity and state anxiety on impulsive decision-making. Our findings reveal how anxiety modulates impulsive decision-making and demonstrate benefits of hierarchical Bayesian analysis over traditional approaches for testing theories of psychopathology spanning levels of analysis.
AchenbachT. M.EdelbrockC. S. (1991). Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist and Revised Child Behavior Profile. Burlington, VT: University Associates in Psychiatry.
2.
AhnW.-Y.GuH.ShenY.HainesN.TeaterJ. E.MyungJ. I.PittM. A. (2019). Rapid, precise, and reliable measurement of delay discounting using a Bayesian learning algorithm. Scientific Reports, 10, Article 12091. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-68587-x
3.
AhnW.-Y.HainesN.ZhangL. (2017). Revealing neurocomputational mechanisms of reinforcement learning and decision-making with the hBayesDM Package. Computational Psychiatry, 1, 24–57. doi:10.1162/CPSY_a_00002
4.
AhnW.-Y.KrawitzA.KimW.BusemeyerJ. R.BrownJ. W. (2011). A model-based fMRI analysis with hierarchical Bayesian parameter estimation. Journal of Neuroscience, Psychology, and Economics, 4, 95–110. doi:10.1037/a0020684
5.
AhnW.-Y.VasilevG.LeeS.-H.BusemeyerJ. R.KruschkeJ. K.BecharaA.VassilevaJ. (2014). Decision-making in stimulant and opiate addicts in protracted abstinence: Evidence from computational modeling with pure users. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, Article 8459. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00849
6.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: Author.
7.
AvilaC.CuencaI.FélixV.ParcetM. A.MirandaA. (2004). Measuring impulsivity in school-aged boys and examining its relationship with ADHD and ODD ratings. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 32, 295–304. doi:10.1023/B:JACP.0000026143.70832.4b
8.
AvilaC.ParcetM. A. (2001). Personality and inhibitory deficits in the stop-signal task: The mediating role of Gray’s anxiety and impulsivity. Personality and Individual Differences, 31, 975–986. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00199-9
9.
BarkerH. R.WadsworthA. P.WilsonW. (1976). Factor structure of the state-trait anxiety inventory in a nonstressful situation. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 32, 595–598. doi:10.1002/1097-4679(197607)32:3 < 595::AID-JCLP2270320322>3.0.CO;2-7
10.
BeauchaineT. P.Ben-DavidI.SelaA. (2017). ADHD, delay discounting, and risky financial behaviors: A preliminary analysis of self-report data. PLOS ONE, 12, Article e0176933. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0176933
11.
BeauchaineT. P.CicchettiD. (2019). Emotion dysregulation and emerging psychopathology: A transdiagnostic, transdisciplinary perspective. Development and Psychopathology, 31, 799–804. doi:10.1017/S0954579419000671
12.
BeauchaineT. P.ConstantinoJ. (2017). Redefining the endophenotype concept to accommodate transdiagnostic vulnerabilities and etiological complexity. Biomarkers in Medicine, 11, 769–780. doi:10.2217/bmm-2017-0002
13.
BeauchaineT. P.ConstantinoJ. N.HaydenE. P. (2018). Psychiatry and developmental psychopathology: Unifying themes and future directions. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 87, 143–152. doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2018.10.014
14.
BeauchaineT. P.HinshawS. P. (2020). The Research Domain Criteria and psychopathology among youth: Misplaced assumptions and an agenda for future research. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology. Advance online publication. doi:10.1080/15374416.2020.1750022
15.
BeauchaineT. P.HinshawS. P.BridgeJ. A. (2019). Nonsuicidal self-injury and suicidal behaviors in girls: The case for targeted prevention in preadolescence. Clinical Psychological Science, 7, 643–667. doi:10.1177/2167702618818474
16.
BeauchaineT. P.KatkinE. S.StrassbergZ.SnarrJ. (2001). Disinhibitory psychopathology in male adolescents: Discriminating conduct disorder from attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder through concurrent assessment of multiple autonomic states. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 610–624. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.110.4.610
17.
BeauchaineT. P.McNultyT. (2013). Comorbidities and continuities as ontogenic processes: Toward a developmental spectrum model of externalizing psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 25, 1505–1528. doi:10.1017/S0954579413000746
18.
BeauchaineT. P.ThayerJ. F. (2015). Heart rate variability as a transdiagnostic biomarker of psychopathology. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 98, 338–350. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2015.08.004
19.
BeauchaineT. P.ZisnerA. R.SauderC. L. (2017). Trait impulsivity and the externalizing spectrum. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 13, 343–368. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-021815-093253
20.
BezdjianS.BakerL. A.LozanoD. I.RaineA. (2009). Assessing inattention and impulsivity in children during the Go/NoGo task. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 27, 365–383. doi:10.1348/026151008X314919
21.
BickelW. K. E.MarschL. A. (2001). Toward a behavioral economic understanding of drug dependence: Delay discounting processes. Addiction, 96, 73–86. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2001.961736.x
22.
BloemsmaJ. M.BoerF.ArnoldR.BanaschewskiT.FaraoneS. V.BuitelaarJ. K.. . . OosterlaanJ. (2012). Comorbid anxiety and neurocognitive dysfunctions in children with ADHD. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 22, 225–234. doi:10.1007/s00787-012-0339-9
23.
BobovaL.FinnP. R.RickertM. E.LucasJ. (2009). Disinhibitory psychopathology and delay discounting in alcohol dependence: Personality and cognitive correlates. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 17, 51–61. doi:10.1037/a0014503
24.
BoehmU.SteingroeverH.WagenmakersE.-J. (2018). Using Bayesian regression to test hypotheses about relationships between parameters and covariates in cognitive models. Behavior Research Methods, 50, 1248–1269. doi:10.3758/s13428-017-0940-4
25.
BohnM. J.BaborT. F.KranzlerH. R. (1995). The alcohol use disorders identification test (AUDIT): Validation of a screening instrument for use in medical settings. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 56, 423–432. doi:10.15288/jsa.1995.56.423
26.
BornovalovaM. A.DaughtersS. B.HernandezG. D.RichardsJ. B.LejuezC. W. (2005). Differences in impulsivity and risk-taking propensity between primary users of crack cocaine and primary users of heroin in a residential substance-use program. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 13, 311–318. doi:10.1037/1064-1297.13.4.311
27.
CarverC. S.JohnsonS. L. (2018). Impulsive reactivity to emotion and vulnerability to psychopathology. American Psychologist, 73, 1067–1078. doi:10.1037/amp0000387
28.
CavagnaroD. R.AranovichG. J.McClureS. M.PittM. A.MyungJ. I. (2016). On the functional form of temporal discounting: An optimized adaptive test. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 52, 233–254. doi:10.1007/s11166-016-9242-y
29.
CharpentierC. J.AylwardJ.RoiserJ. P.RobinsonO. J. (2017). Enhanced risk aversion, but not loss aversion, in unmedicated pathological anxiety. Biological Psychiatry, 81, 1014–1022. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2016.12.010
30.
CicchettiD.AckermanB. P.IzardC. E. (1995). Emotions and emotion regulation in developmental psychopathology. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 1–10. doi:10.1017/S0954579400006301
31.
CicchettiD.DawsonG. (2002). Editorial: Multiple levels of analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 417–420. doi:10.1017/S0954579402003012
32.
CoccoK. M.CareyK. B. (1998). Psychometric properties of the Drug Abuse Screening Test in psychiatric outpatients. Psychological Assessment, 10, 408–414. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.10.4.408
33.
ConnersC. K., &MHS Staff. (2000). Conners’ Continuous Performance Test II (CPT II). North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.
34.
CoolsR.NakamuraK.DawN. D. (2011). Serotonin and dopamine: Unifying affective, activational, and decision functions. Neuropsychopharmacology, 36, 98–113. doi:10.1038/npp.2010.121
35.
CorrP. J. (2001). Testing problems in J. A. Gray’s personality theory: A commentary on Matthews and Gilland (1999). Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 333–352. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00028-3
36.
CorrP. J. (2004). Reinforcement sensitivity theory and personality. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 28, 317–332. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2004.01.005
37.
CorrP. J. (2008). Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory of personality. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
38.
CorrP. J.McNaughtonN. (2016). Neural mechanisms of low trait anxiety and risk for externalizing behavior. In BeauchaineT. P.HinshawS. P. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of externalizing spectrum disorders (pp. 220–238). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
39.
CraigmileP. F.PeruggiaM.Van ZandtT. (2010). Hierarchical Bayes models for response time data. Psychometrika, 75, 613–632. doi:10.1007/s11336-010-9172-6
40.
CydersM.CoskunpinarA. (2011). Measurement of constructs using self-report and behavioral lab tasks: Is there overlap in nomothetic span and construct representation for impulsivity?Clinical Psychology Review, 31, 965–982. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2011.06.001
41.
DaeppenJ. B.YersinB.LandryU.PécoudA.DecreyH. (2000). Reliability and validity of the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) embedded within a general health risk screening questionnaire: Results of a survey in 332 primary care patients. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 24, 659–665. doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2000.tb02037.x
42.
DomG.HulstijnW.SabbeB. (2006). Differences in impulsivity and sensation seeking between early- and late-onset alcoholics. Addictive Behaviors, 31, 298–308. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2005.05.009
43.
DoyaK. (2002). Metalearning and neuromodulation. Neural Networks, 15, 495–506. doi:10.1016/S0893-6080(02)00044-8
DuckworthA. L.KernM. L. (2011). A meta-analysis of the convergent validity of self-control measures. Journal of Research in Personality, 45, 259–268. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2011.02.004
46.
EnebrinkP.AndershedH.LångströmN. (2009). Callous–unemotional traits are associated with clinical severity in referred boys with conduct problems. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 59, 431–440. doi:10.1080/08039480500360690
47.
EngelmannJ. B.MeyerF.FehrE.RuffC. C. (2015). Anticipatory anxiety disrupts neural valuation during risky choice. The Journal of Neuroscience, 35, 3085–3099. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2880-14.2015
48.
ErscheK. D.TurtonA. J.PradhanS.BullmoreE. T.RobbinsT. W. (2010). Drug addiction endophenotypes: Impulsive versus sensation-seeking personality traits. Biological Psychiatry, 68, 770–773. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.06.015
49.
FinucaneB.ChallmanT. D.MartinC. L.LedbetterD. H. (2016). Shift happens: Family background influences clinical variability in genetic neurodevelopmental disorders. Genetics in Medicine, 18, 302–304. doi:10.1038/gim.2015.92
50.
FirstM. B.WilliamsJ. B. W.KargR. S.SpitzerR. L. (2015). Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5—Research Version (SCID-5). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Association.
51.
FoellJ.BrislinS. J.StricklandC. M.SeoD.SabatinelliD.PatrickC. J. (2016). Externalizing proneness and brain response during pre-cuing and viewing of emotional pictures. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 11, 1102–1110. doi:10.1093/scan/nsv080
52.
FowlesD. C. (2000). Electrodermal hyporeactivity and antisocial behavior: Does anxiety mediate the relationship?Journal of Affective Disorders, 61, 177–189. doi:10.1016/S0165-0327(00)00336-0
53.
FrickP. J.WhiteS. F. (2008). Research review: The importance of callous-unemotional traits for developmental models of aggressive and antisocial behavior. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 49, 359–375. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01862.x
54.
Gatzke-KoppL. M.BeauchaineT. P.ShannonK. E.ChipmanJ.FlemingA. P.CrowellS. E.. . . AylwardE. (2009). Neurological correlates of reward responding in adolescents with and without externalizing behavior disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 203–213. doi:10.1037/a0014378
55.
GizerI. R.OttoJ. M.EllingsonJ. M. (2017). Molecular genetics of the externalizing spectrum. In BeauchaineT. P.HinshawS. P. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of externalizing spectrum disorders (pp. 149–169). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
56.
GrayJ. A. (1970). The psychophysiological basis of introversion-extraversion. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 8, 249–266. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(70)90069-0
57.
GrayJ. A. (1987). Perspectives on anxiety and impulsivity: A commentary. Journal of Research in Personality, 21, 493–509. doi:10.1016/0092-6566(87)90036-5
58.
GrayJ. A.McNaughtonN. (2000). The neuropsychology of anxiety: An enquiry into the functions of the septo-hippocampal system (2nd ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
59.
GreenL.MyersonJ. (2004). A discounting framework for choice with delayed and probabilistic rewards. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 769–792. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.5.769
60.
HainesN.VassilevaJ.AhnW.-Y. (2018). The outcome-representation learning model: A novel reinforcement learning model of the Iowa Gambling Task. Cognitive Science, 47, 1–28. doi:10.1111/cogs.12688
61.
HampsonS. E. (2012). Personality processes: Mechanisms by which personality traits “Get outside the skin.”Annual Review of Psychology, 63, 315–339. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100419
62.
HaysR. D.MerzJ. F.NicholasR. (1995). Response burden, reliability, and validity of the CAGE, Short MAST, and AUDIT alcohol screening measures. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 27, 277–280. doi:10.3758/BF03204745
63.
HedgeC.PowellG.SumnerP. (2017). The reliability paradox: Why robust cognitive tasks do not produce reliable individual differences. Behavior Research Methods, 103, 1–21. doi:10.3758/s13428-017-0935-1
64.
HoM. Y.MobiniS.ChiangT. J.BradshawC. M.SzabadiE. (1999). Theory and method in the quantitative analysis of “impulsive choice” behaviour: Implications for psychopharmacology. Psychopharmacology, 146, 362–372. doi:10.1007/PL00005482
65.
JensenP. S.HinshawS. P.KraemerH. C.LenoraN.NewcornJ. H.AbikoffH. B.. . . VitielloB. (2001). ADHD comorbidity findings from the MTA Study: Comparing comorbid subgroups. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 147–158. doi:10.1097/00004583-200102000-00009
66.
KahnemanD.TverskyA. (1979). Prospect theory: An analysis of decision under risk. Econometrica, 47, 263–292. doi:10.2307/1914185
67.
KoffE.LucasM. (2011). Mood moderates the relationship between impulsiveness and delay discounting. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 1018–1022. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.01.016
68.
KruegerR. F.HicksB. M.PatrickC. J.CarlsonS. R.IaconoW. G.McGueM. (2002). Etiologic connections among substance dependence, antisocial behavior and personality: Modeling the externalizing spectrum. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 411–424. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.111.3.411
69.
KruschkeJ. K. (2015). Doing Bayesian data analysis (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Academic Press.
LombardoL. E.BeardenC. E.BarrettJ.BrumbaughM. S.PittmanB.FrangouS.GlahnD. C. (2012). Trait impulsivity as an endophenotype for bipolar I disorder. Bipolar Disorders, 14, 565–570. doi:10.1111/j.1399-5618.2012.01035.x
72.
LongA. B.KuhnC. M.PlattM. L. (2009). Serotonin shapes risky decision making in monkeys. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 4, 346–356. doi:10.1093/scan/nsp020
73.
LuckmanA.DonkinC.NewellB. R. (2017). Can a single model account for both risky choices and inter-temporal choices? Testing the assumptions underlying models of risky inter-temporal choice. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 25, 785–792. doi:10.3758/s13423-017-1330-8
74.
LynamD. R.CaspiA.MoffitT. E.WikströmP.-O.LoeberR.NovakS. (2000). The interaction between impulsivity and neighborhood context on offending: The effects of impulsivity are stronger in poorer neighborhoods. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 563–574. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.109.4.563
75.
MacoveanuJ.RoweJ. B.HornbollB.ElliottR.PaulsonO. B.KnudsenG. M.SiebnerH. R. (2013). Serotonin 2A receptors contribute to the regulation of risk-averse decisions. NeuroImage, 83, 35–44. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2013.06.063
76.
ManassisK.TannockR.BarbosaJ. (2000). Dichotic listening and response inhibition in children with comorbid anxiety disorders and ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 1152–1159. doi:10.1097/00004583-200009000-00015
77.
ManerJ. K.RicheyJ. A.CromerK.MallottM.LejuezC. W.JoinerT. E.SchmidtN. B. (2007). Dispositional anxiety and risk-avoidant decision-making. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 665–675. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.08.016
78.
MasonW.SuriS. (2011). Conducting behavioral research on Amazon’s Mechanical Turk. Behavior Research Methods, 44, 1–23. doi:10.3758/s13428-011-0124-6
79.
MazurJ. E. (1987). An adjustment procedure for studying delayed reinforcement. In CommonsM. L.MazurJ. E.NevinJ. A.RachlinH. (Eds.), Quantitative analyses of behavior (Vol. 5, pp. 55–73). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
80.
McCloskeyM. S.NewA. S.SieverL. J.GoodmanM.KoenigsbergH. W.FloryJ. D.CoccaroE. F. (2009). Evaluation of behavioral impulsivity and aggression tasks as endophenotypes for borderline personality disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 43, 1036–1048. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2009.01.002
81.
McGloinJ. M.O’Neill ShermerL. (2008). Self-control and deviant peer network structure. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 46, 35–72. doi:10.1177/0022427808326585
82.
MeierM. H.SlutskeW. S.ArndtS.CadoretR. J. (2008). Impulsive and callous traits are more strongly associated with delinquent behavior in higher risk neighborhoods among boys and girls. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 377–385. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.117.2.377
83.
MyungJ. I.CavagnaroD. R.PittM. A. (2013). A tutorial on adaptive design optimization. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 57, 53–67. doi:10.1016/j.jmp.2013.05.005
84.
NeuhausE.BeauchaineT. P. (2017). Impulsivity and vulnerability to psychopathology. In BeauchaineT. P.HinshawS. P. (Eds.), Child and adolescent psychopathology (pp. 178–212). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
85.
OasP. (1985). The psychological assessment of impulsivity: A review. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 3, 141–156. doi:10.1177/073428298500300205
86.
OrtizJ.RaineA. (2004). Heart rate level and antisocial behavior in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 154–162. doi:10.1097/00004583-200402000-00010
87.
PattersonG. R.DegarmoD. S.KnutsonN. (2000). Hyperactive and antisocial behaviors: Comorbid or two points in the same process?Development and Psychopathology, 12, 91–106. doi:10.1017/S0954579400001061
88.
PattonJ. H.StanfordM. S.BarrattE. S. (1995). Factor structure of the Barratt impulsiveness scale. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 51, 768–774. doi:10.1002/1097-4679(199511)51:6<768::AID-JCLP2270510607>3.0.CO;2-1
89.
PatrickC. J.BernatE. M.MaloneS. M.IaconoW. G.KruegerR. F.McgueM. K. (2006). P300 amplitude as an indicator of externalizing in adolescent males. Psychophysiology, 43, 84–92. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2006.00376.x
90.
PetryN. M. (2001). Delay discounting of money and alcohol in actively using alcoholics, currently abstinent alcoholics, and controls. Psychopharmacology, 154, 243–250. doi:10.1007/s002130000638
91.
RobbinsT. W.GillanC. M.SmithD. G.de WitS.ErscheK. D. (2012). Neurocognitive endophenotypes of impulsivity and compulsivity: Towards dimensional psychiatry. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16, 81–91. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.11.009
92.
RouderJ. N.HaafJ. M. (2019). A psychometrics of individual differences in experimental tasks. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 26, 452–467. doi:10.3758/s13423-018-1558-y
93.
RouderJ. N.LuJ. (2005). An introduction to Bayesian hierarchical models with an application in the theory of signal detection. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 12, 573–604. doi:10.3758/BF03196750
94.
RungJ. M.MaddenG. J. (2018). Experimental reductions of delay discounting and impulsive choice: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 147, 1349–1381. doi:10.1037/xge0000462
95.
SagvoldenT.JohansenE. B.AaseH.RussellV. A. (2005). A dynamic developmental theory of ADHD predominantly hyperactive/impulsive and combined subtypes. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 28, 397–468. doi:10.1017/S0140525X05000075
96.
SauderC. L.BeauchaineT. P.Gatzke-KoppL. M.ShannonK. E.AylwardE. (2012). Neuroanatomical correlates of heterotypic comorbidity in externalizing male adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 41, 346–352. doi:10.1080/15374416.2012.658612
97.
SchatzD. B.RostainA. L. (2006). ADHD with comorbid anxiety. Journal of Attention Disorders, 10, 141–149. doi:10.1177/1087054706286698
98.
SchweighoferN.BertinM.ShishidaK.OkamotoY.TanakaS. C.YamawakiS.DoyaK. (2008). Low serotonin levels increase delayed reward discounting in humans. The Journal of Neuroscience, 28, 4528–4532. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4982-07.2008
99.
ShapiroD. N.ChandlerJ.MuellerP. A. (2013). Using Mechanical Turk to study clinical populations. Clinical Psychological Science, 1, 213–220. doi:10.1177/2167702612469015
100.
SharmaL.MarkonK. E.ClarkL. A. (2014). Toward a theory of distinct types of “impulsive” behaviors: A meta-analysis of self-report and behavioral measures. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 374–408. doi:10.1037/a0034418
101.
ShiffrinR. M.LeeM. D.KimW.WagenmakersE.-J. (2008). A survey of model evaluation approaches with a tutorial on hierarchical Bayesian methods. Cognitive Science, 32, 1248–1284. doi:10.1080/03640210802414826
102.
ShinS. H.CookA. K.MorrisN. A.McDougleR.GrovesL. P. (2016). Different faces of impulsivity as links between childhood maltreatment and young adult crime. Preventive Medicine, 88, 210–217. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2016.03.022
103.
SkinnerH. A. (1982). The drug abuse screening test. Addictive Behaviors, 7, 363–371. doi:10.1016/0306-4603(82)90005-3
104.
SpielbergerC. D. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
105.
StanfordM. S.MathiasC. W.DoughertyD. M.LakeS. L.AndersonN. E.PattonJ. H. (2009). Fifty years of the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale: An update and review. Personality and Individual Differences, 47, 385–395. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.04.008
106.
TanakaS. C.ShishidaK.SchweighoferN.OkamotoY.YamawakiS.DoyaK. (2009). Serotonin affects association of aversive outcomes to past actions. The Journal of Neuroscience, 29, 15669–15674. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2799-09.2009
107.
TremblayR. E.PihlR. O.VitaroF.DobkinP. L. (1994). Predicting early onset of male antisocial behavior from preschool behavior. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 732–739. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1994.03950090064009
108.
TurnerB. M.ForstmannB. U.LoveB. C.PalmeriT. J.Van MaanenL. (2017). Approaches to analysis in model-based cognitive neuroscience. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 76, 65–79. doi:10.1016/j.jmp.2016.01.001
109.
TurnerB. M.RodriguezC. A.LiuQ.MolloyM. F.HoogendijkM.McClureS. M. (2018). On the neural and mechanistic bases of self-control. Cerebral Cortex, 29, 732–750. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhx355
110.
TurnerB. M.Van MaanenL.ForstmannB. U. (2015). Informing cognitive abstractions through neuroimaging: The neural drift diffusion model. Psychological Review, 122, 312–336. doi:10.1037/a0038894
111.
TuvbladC.ZhengM.RaineA.BakerL. A. (2009). A common genetic factor explains the covariation among ADHD ODD and CD symptoms in 9-10 year old boys and girls. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37, 153–167. doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9278-9
112.
TverskyA.KahnemanD. (1992). Advances in prospect theory: Cumulative representation of uncertainty. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 5, 297–323. doi:10.1007/BF00122574
113.
VassilevaJ.ConrodP. J. (2019). Impulsivities and addictions: A multidimensional integrative framework informing assessment and interventions for substance use disorders. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 374, Article 20180137. doi:10.1098/rstb.2018.0137
114.
VehtariA.GelmanA.GabryJ. (2017). Practical Bayesian model evaluation using leave-one-out cross-validation and WAIC. Statistics and Computing, 27, 1413–1432. doi:10.1007/s11222-016-9696-4
115.
WagenmakersE.-J. (2007). A practical solution to the pervasive problems of p values. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 14, 779–804. doi:10.3758/BF03194105
116.
WalkerJ. L.LaheyB. B.RussoM. F.FrickP. J.ChristM. A. G.McBurnettK.. . . GreenS. M. (1991). Anxiety, inhibition, and conduct disorder in children: I. Relations to social impairment. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 187–191. doi:10.1097/00004583-199103000-00004
117.
WhitesideS. P.LynamD. R. (2001). The Five Factor Model and impulsivity: Using a structural model of personality to understand impulsivity. Personality and Individual Differences, 30, 669–689. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00064-7
118.
WilsonV. B.MitchellS. H.MusserE. D.SchmittC. F.NiggJ. T. (2010). Delay discounting of reward in ADHD: Application in young children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52, 256–264. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02347.x
119.
XiaL.GuR.ZhangD.LuoY. (2017). Anxious individuals are impulsive decision-makers in the delay discounting task: An ERP study. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 11, Article 5. doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2017.00005
120.
YudkoE.LozhkinaO.FoutsA. (2007). A comprehensive review of the psychometric properties of the Drug Abuse Screening Test. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 32, 189–198. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2006.08.002
121.
ZhaoJ.ChengJ.HarrisM.VigoR. (2015). Anxiety and intertemporal decision making: The effect of the behavioral inhibition system and the moderation effects of trait anxiety on both state anxiety and socioeconomic status. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 236–241. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.08.018
122.
ZinbargR.RevelleW. (1989). Personality and conditioning: A test of four models. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57, 301–314. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.57.2.301
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
