Depression is associated with deficits in executive functions (EFs)—cognitive control abilities that regulate goal-directed thoughts and actions—but the etiology of these associations is unclear. We examined the relations between depressive symptoms and multiple EF latent variables in a population-based sample of 439 twin pairs assessed at mean ages 12, 17, and 23 years. Greater depressive symptoms negatively related to a Common EF factor capturing shared variance across response inhibition, working memory updating, and mental set shifting tasks, and also negatively related to an Updating-Specific factor, but not a Shifting-Specific factor. Cross-lagged panel models suggested that the Common EF correlations reflected within-wave associations rather than prospective effects, whereas the Updating-Specific correlations reflected associations of earlier depression levels with later Updating-Specific ability. Twin models were consistent with a model in which Common EF and Updating-Specific abilities relate to depression through correlated genetic risk, with no significant environmental correlations.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
2.
BeckA. T. (1967). Depression: Clinical, experimental, and theoretical aspects. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
3.
BestJ. R.MillerP. H. (2010). A developmental perspective on executive function. Child Development, 81, 1641–1660. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01499.x
4.
CaspiA.HoutsR. M.BelskyD. W.Goldman-MellorS. J.HarringtonH.IsraelS., . . . MoffittT. E. (2014). The p factor: One general psychopathology factor in the structure of psychiatric disorders?Clinical Psychological Science, 2, 119–137. doi:10.1177/2167702613497473
5.
ColeD. A.MaxwellS. E. (2009). Statistical methods for risk-outcome research: Being sensitive to longitudinal structure. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 5, 71–96. doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-060508-130357
6.
ColletteF.HoggeM.SalmonE.Van der LindenM. (2006). Exploration of the neural substrates of executive functioning by functional neuroimaging. Neuroscience, 139, 209–221. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.035
7.
De RaedtR.KosterE. H. W. (2010). Understanding vulnerability for depression from a cognitive neuroscience perspective: A reappraisal of attentional factors and a new conceptual framework. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 10, 50–70. doi:10.3758/CABN.10.1.50
8.
DerksE. M.DolanC. V.BoomsmaD. I. (2004). Effects of censoring on parameter estimates and power in genetic modeling. Twin Research, 7, 659–669. doi:10.1375/twin.7.6.659
9.
DisnerS. G.BeeversC. G.HaighE. A. P.BeckA. T. (2011). Neural mechanisms of the cognitive model of depression. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 12, 467–477. doi:10.1038/nrn3027
10.
EngelhardtL. E.BrileyD. A.MannF. D.HardenK. P.Tucker-DrobE. M. (2015). Genes unite executive functions in childhood. Psychological Science, 26, 1151–1163. doi:10.1177/0956797615577209
11.
FergussonD. M.HorwoodL. J.RidderE. M.BeautraisD. (2005). Subthreshold depression in adolescence and mental health outcomes in adulthood. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 66–72. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.1.66
12.
FriedmanN. P.HaberstickB. C.WillcuttE. G.MiyakeA.YoungS. E.CorleyR. P.HewittJ. K. (2007). Greater attention problems during childhood predict poorer executive functioning in late adolescence. Psychological Science, 18, 893–900. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01997.x
13.
FriedmanN. P.MiyakeA. (2017). Unity and diversity of executive functions: Individual differences as a window on cognitive structure. Cortex, 86, 186–204. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2016.04.023
14.
FriedmanN. P.MiyakeA.AltamiranoL. J.CorleyR. P.YoungS. E.RheaS. A.HewittJ. K. (2016). Stability and change in executive function abilities from late adolescence to early adulthood: A longitudinal twin study. Developmental Psychology, 52, 326–340. doi:10.1037/dev0000075
15.
FriedmanN. P.MiyakeA.YoungS. E.DefriesJ. C.CorleyR. P.HewittJ. K. (2008). Individual differences in executive functions are almost entirely genetic in origin. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 137, 201–225. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.137.2.201
16.
GustavsonD. E.StallingsM. C.CorleyR. P.MiyakeA.HewittJ. K.FriedmanN. P. (2017). Executive functions and substance use: Relations in late adolescence and early adulthood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 126, 257–270. doi:10.1037/abn0000250
17.
HatoumA. S.RheeS. H.CorleyR. P.HewittJ. K.FriedmanN. P. (2017). Do executive functions explain covariance between internalizing and externalizing behaviors?Development and Psychopathology. Advance online publication. doi:10.1017/S0954579417001602
18.
HerdS. A.O’ReillyR. C.HazyT. E.ChathamC. H.BrantA. M.FriedmanN. P. (2014). A neural network model of individual differences in task switching abilities. Neuropsychologia, 62, 375–389. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2014.04.014
19.
HuL.BentlerP. M. (1998). Fit indices in covariance structure modeling: Sensitivity to underparameterized model misspecification. Psychological Methods, 3, 424–453.
20.
Ibrahim-VerbaasC. A.BresslerJ.DebetteS.SchuurM.SmithA. V.BisJ. C.. . . MosleyT. H. (2016). GWAS for executive function and processing speed suggests involvement of the CADM2 gene. Molecular Psychiatry, 21, 189–197. doi:10.1038/mp.2015.37
21.
JohnsonD. P.WhismanM. A.CorleyR. P.HewittJ. K.FriedmanN. P. (2014). Genetic and environmental influences on rumination and its covariation with depression. Cognition & Emotion, 28, 1270–1286. doi:10.1080/02699931.2014.881325
22.
JoormannJ.TanovicE. (2015). Cognitive vulnerability to depression: Examining cognitive control and emotion regulation. Current Opinion in Psychology, 4, 86–92. doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2014.12.006
23.
KendlerK. S.GardnerC. O. (1998). Boundaries of major depression: An evaluation of DSM-IV criteria. American Journal of Psychiatry, 155, 172–177. doi:10.1176/ajp.155.2.172
24.
KendlerK. S.NealeM. C. (2010). Endophenotype: A conceptual analysis. Molecular Psychiatry, 15, 789–797. doi:10.1038/mp.2010.8
25.
KesslerR. C.ChiuW. T.DemlerO.WaltersE. E. (2005). Prevalence, severity, and comorbidity of 12-month DSM-IV disorders in the national comorbidity survey replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 617–627. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.62.6.617
26.
KesslerR. C.ZhaoS.BlazerD. G.SwartzM. (1997). Prevalence, correlates, and course of minor depression and major depression in the national comorbidity survey. Journal of Affective Disorders, 45, 19–30. doi:10.1016/S0165-0327(97)00056-6
27.
LevensS. M.GotlibI. H. (2010). Updating positive and negative stimuli in working memory in depression. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 139, 654–664. doi:10.1037/a0020283
28.
LewinsohnP. M.KleinD. N.DurbinE. C.SeeleyJ. R.RohdeP. (2003). Family study of subthreshold depressive symptoms: Risk factor for MDD?Journal of Affective Disorders, 77, 149–157. doi:10.1016/S0165-0327(02)00106-4
29.
MiyakeA.FriedmanN. P. (2012). The nature and organisation of individual differences in executive functions: Four general conclusions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21, 8–14. doi:10.1177/0963721411429458
30.
MiyakeA.FriedmanN. P.EmersonM. J.WitzkiA. H.HowerterA.WagerT. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49–100. doi:10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
31.
MohlmanJ.GormanJ. M. (2005). The role of executive functioning in CBT: A pilot study with anxious older adults. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 447–465. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2004.03.007
32.
MuthénL. K.MuthénB. O. (1998–2012). Mplus user’s guide (7th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Author.
33.
NealeM. C.HeathA. C.HewittJ. K.EavesL. J.FulkerD. W. (1989). Fitting genetic models with LISREL: Hypothesis testing. Behavior Genetics, 19, 37–49. doi:10.1007/BF01065882
34.
Nolen-HoeksemaS. (1991). Responses to depression and their effects on the duration of depressive episodes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 569–582. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.100.4.569
35.
Nolen-HoeksemaS.WatkinsE. R. (2011). A heuristic for developing transdiagnostic models of psychopathology: Explaining multifinality and divergent trajectories. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 589–609. doi:10.1177/1745691611419672
36.
PlominR.HaworthC. M. A. (2010). Genetics and intervention research. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5, 557–563. doi:10.1177/1745691610383513
37.
RadloffL. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401. doi:10.1177/014662167700100306
38.
RebolloI.de MoorM. H. M.DolanC. V.BoomsmaD. I. (2006). Phenotypic factor analysis of family data: Correction of the bias due to dependency. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 9, 367–376. doi:10.1375/twin.9.3.367
39.
RheaS. A.GrossA. A.HaberstickB. C.CorleyR. P. (2006). Colorado twin registry. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 9, 941–949. doi:10.1375/twin.9.6.941
40.
RobinsL. N.CottlerL. B.BucholzK. K.ComptonW. M.NorthC. S.RourkeK. M. (2000). Diagnostic Interview Schedule for the DSM-IV (DIS-IV). St. Louis, MO: Washington University School of Medicine.
41.
RutterM. (2007). Proceeding from observed correlation to causal inference: The use of natural experiments. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2, 377–395. doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00050.x
42.
SanislowC. A.PineD. S.QuinnK. J.KozakM. J.GarveyM. A.HeinssenR. K., . . . CuthbertB. N. (2010). Developing constructs for psychopathology research: Research domain criteria. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 631–639. doi:10.1037/a0020909
43.
SatorraA.BentlerP. M. (2001). A scaled difference chi-square test statistic for moment structure analysis. Psychometrika, 66, 507–514. doi:10.1007/BF02296192
44.
SchmaalL.HibarD. P.SämannP. G.HallG. B.BauneB. T.JahanshadN., . . . VeltmanD. J. (2017). Cortical abnormalities in adults and adolescents with major depression based on brain scans from 20 cohorts worldwide in the ENIGMA Major Depressive Disorder Working Group. Molecular Psychiatry, 22, 900–909. doi:10.1038/mp.2016.60
45.
ShafferD.FisherP.LucasC. P.DulcanM. K.Schwab-StoneM. E. (2000). NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children version IV (NIMH DISC-IV): Description, differences from previous versions, and reliability of some common diagnoses. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 28–38. doi:10.1097/00004583-200001000-00014
46.
SnyderH. R. (2013). Major depressive disorder is associated with broad impairments on neuropsychological measures of executive function: A meta-analysis and review. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 81–132. doi:10.1037/a0028727
47.
SnyderH. R.MiyakeA.HankinB. L. (2015). Advancing understanding of executive function impairments and psychopathology: Bridging the gap between clinical and cognitive approaches. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, Article 328. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00328
48.
SullivanP. F.NealeM. C.KendlerK. S. (2000). Genetic epidemiology of major depression: Review and meta-analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 1552–1562. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.157.10.1552
49.
WaltersJ. T. R.OwenM. J. (2007). Endophenotypes in psychiatric genetics. Molecular Psychiatry, 12, 886–890. doi:10.1038/sj.mp.4002068
50.
WatkinsE. R.Nolen-HoeksemaS. (2014). A habit-goal framework of depressive rumination. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 123, 24–34. doi:10.1037/a0035540
51.
WeissB.SüsserK.CatronT. (1998). Common and specific features of childhood psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 118–127. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.107.1.118
52.
WilcoxR. R.KeselmanH. J. (2003). Modern robust data analysis methods: Measures of central tendency. Psychological Methods, 8, 254–274. doi:10.1037/1082-989X.8.3.254
53.
YoonK. L.LemoultJ.JoormannJ. (2014). Updating emotional content in working memory: A depression-specific deficit?Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 45, 368–374. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2014.03.004
54.
YoungS. E.FriedmanN. P.MiyakeA.WillcuttE. G.CorleyR. P.HaberstickB. C.HewittJ. K. (2009). Behavioral disinhibition: Liability for externalizing spectrum disorders and its genetic and environmental relation to response inhibition across adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 118, 117–130.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
