The Features of Emerging Adulthood and Individuation: Relations and Differences by College-Going Status,Age,and Living Situation

Abstract

This study investigated how emerging adults’ processes of individuation from their parents relate to their perceptions of Arnett’s defining features of emerging adulthood. It specifically examined differences in perceptions of emerging adulthood and individuation as functions of college-going versus non-college-going status, age across the full emerging adult range (18–29), and living situation (independently or with parents), as well as explored these factors’ potential moderating roles. Structural equation modeling analyses showed many of the positive dimensions of individuation (such as self-reliance and support-seeking from parents) related to the more adaptive features of emerging adulthood (such as identity exploration and sense of possibilities), though not all relations suggested developmental desirability. Perceptions of emerging adulthood differed by both college-going status and age; college-going status moderated many of the individuation-emerging adulthood relationships. The findings suggest perceptions of emerging adulthood cannot be fully understood without considering the roles of college-going, age, and individuation.

Keywords

emerging adulthood individuation college-going status age differences living situation

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Arnett

J. J.

(2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5), 469–480. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.5.469

Arnett

J. J.

(2004). Emerging adulthood. Oxford University Press.

Arnett

J. J.

(2006). Emerging adulthood: Understanding the new way of coming of age. In Arnett

J. J.

Tanner

J. L.

(eds), Emerging adults in America: Coming of age in the 21st century (pp. 3–19). American Psychological Association.

Arnett

J. J.

(2015). Emerging adulthood: The winding road from the late teens through the twenties (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.

Arnett

J. J.

(2016a). College students as emerging adults: The developmental implications of the college context. Emerging Adulthood, 4(3), 219–222. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696815587422

Arnett

J. J.

(2016b). Does emerging adulthood theory apply across social classes? National data on a persistent question. Emerging Adulthood, 4(3), 227–235. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696815613000

Arnett

J. J.

Mitra

(2018). Are the features of emerging adulthood developmentally distinctive? A comparison of ages 18–60 in the United States. Emerging Adulthood, 1–8(5), 412–419. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696818810073

Arnett

J. J.

Žukauskienė

Sugimura

(2014). The new life stage of emerging adulthood at ages 18–29 years: Implications for mental health. The Lancet Psychiatry, 1(7), 569–576. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(14)00080-7

Barlett

C. P.

Barlett

N. D.

Chalk

H. M.

(2020). Transitioning through emerging adulthood and physical health implications. Emerging Adulthood, 8(4), 297–305. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696818814642

10.

Blevins

C. E.

Caviness

C. M.

Anderson

B. J.

Herman

D. S.

Stein

M. D.

(2019). What impacts feelings of adulthood among college-attending and non-college-attending emerging adults who use alcohol and cannabis? Emerging Adulthood, 1–7(2), 170–176. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696819844059

11.

Blos

(1962). On adolescence: A psychoanalytic interpretation. The Free Press.

12.

Bollen

K. A.

(1989). Structural equations with latent variables. Wiley.

13.

Bowen

(1978). Family therapy in clinical practice. Jason Aronson.

14.

Bryant

F. B.

Osowski

K. A.

Smith

J. L.

(2021). Gratitude as a mediator of the effects of savoring on positive adjustment to aging. The International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 92(3), 275–300. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0091415020919999

15.

Buhl

H. M.

(2008). Significance of individuation in adult child–parent relationships. Journal of Family Issues, 29(2), 262–281. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X07304272

16.

Butterbaugh

S. M.

Ross

D. B.

Campbell

(2020). My money and me: Attaining financial independence in emerging adulthood through a conceptual model of identity capital theory. Contemporary Family Therapy, 42(1), 33–45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10591-019-09515-8

17.

Cheung

G. W.

Rensvold

R. B.

(2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural equation modeling, 9(2), 233–255. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5

18.

Chin

W. W.

(2010). How to write up and report PLS analyses. In Esposito

V. V.

Chin

W. W.

Henseler

Wang

(eds), Handbook of partial least squares: Concepts, methods, and applications (pp. 655–690). Springer.

19.

Choy

(2002). Nontraditional undergraduates. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2002/2002012.pdf

20.

Crocetti

Tagliabue

Sugimura

Nelson

L. J.

Takahashi

Niwa

(2015). Perceptions of emerging adulthood: A study with Italian and Japanese university students and young workers. Emerging Adulthood, 3(4), 229–243. https://doi.org/10.11772F2167696815569848

21.

Dempster

A. P.

Laird

N. M.

Rubin

D. B.

(1977). Maximum likelihood from incomplete data via the EM algorithm. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series B (Methodological), 39(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2517-6161.1977.tb01600.x

22.

Dykas

M. J.

Siskind

D. G.

(2020). Turning from parents: Psychological distancing and attachment-related changes in regret for immediate contact in emerging adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 8(3), 195–208. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696818799833

23.

Elliot

A. J.

Friedman

(2007). Approach-avoidance: A central characteristic of personal goals. In Little

B. R.

Salmela-Aro

Phillips

S. D.

(eds), Personal project pursuit: Goals, action, and human flourishing (p. 97–118). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

24.

Erikson

E. H.

(1968). Identity youth and crisis. WW Norton.

25.

Fornell

C. D.

Lacker

D. F.

(1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.11772F002224378101800104

26.

Galanaki

Leontopoulou

(2017). Criteria for the transition to adulthood, developmental features of emerging adulthood, and views of the future among Greek studying youth. Europe's Journal of Psychology, 13(3), 417–440. https://doi.org/10.5964%2Fejop.v13i3.1327

27.

Garson

G. D.

(2016). Partial least squares regression and structural equation models. Statistical Associates Publishing.

28.

Guan

Capezio

Restubog

S. L. D.

Read

Lajom

J. A. L.

(2016). The role of traditionality in the relationships among parental support, career decision-making, self-efficacy and career adaptability. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 94, 114–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2016.02.018

29.

Hair

J. F.

Risher

J. J.

Sarstedt

Ringle

C. M.

(2019). When to use and how to report the results of PLS-SEM. European Business Review, 31(1), 2–24. https://doi.org/10.1108/EBR-11-2018-0203

30.

Hancock

G. R.

(1997). Structural equation modeling methods of hypothesis testing of latent variable means. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 30(2), 91–105, https://doi.org/10.1080/07481756.1997.12068926

31.

Hancock

G. R.

(2001). Effect size, power, and sample size determination for structured means modeling and MIMIC approaches to between-groups hypothesis testing of means on a single latent construct. Psychometrika, 66(3), 373–388, https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02294440

32.

Hartman

C. L.

Anderson

D. M.

(2018). Psychosocial identity development and perception of free time among college-attending emerging adults. Leisure Sciences, 1–19(1), 77–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/01490400.2018.1483850

33.

Hendry

L. B.

Kloep

(2010). How universal is emerging adulthood? An empirical example. Journal of Youth Studies, 13(2), 169–179. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676260903295067

34.

Hsu

S-H.

Chen

W-H.

Hsieh

M-J.

(2006). Robustness testing of PLS, LISREL, EQS and ANN-based SEM for measuring customer satisfaction. Total Quality Management 17(3), 355–371. https://doi.org/10.1080/14783360500451465

35.

L. T.

Bentler

P. M.

(1998). Fit indices in covariance structure modeling: Sensitivity to underparameterized model misspecification. Psychological Methods, 3(4), 424–453. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.3.4.424

36.

Inguglia

Ingoglia

Liga

Lo Coco

Lo Cricchio

M. G.

(2015). Autonomy and relatedness in adolescence and emerging adulthood: Relationships with parental support and psychological distress. Journal of Adult Development, 22(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-014-9196-8

37.

Jöreskog

K. G.

Goldberger

A. S.

(1975). Estimation of a model with multiple indicators and multiple causes of a single latent variable. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 70(351), 631–639. https://doi.org/10.2307/2285946

38.

Kağıtçıbaşi

(2005). Autonomy and relatedness in cultural context: Implications for self and family. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 36(4), 403–422. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022022105275959

39.

Kavčič

Zupančič

(2019). Types of separation-individuation in relation to mothers and fathers among young people entering adulthood. Journal of Youth Studies, 22(1), 66–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2018.1478070

40.

Keller

(2012). Autonomy and relatedness revisited: Cultural manifestations of universal human needs. Child Development Perspectives, 6(1), 12–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2011.00208.x

41.

Kenny

M. E.

(1987). The extent and function of parental attachment among first-year college students. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 16(1), 17–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02141544

42.

Kins

Beyers

(2010). Failure to launch, failure to achieve criteria for adulthood? Journal of Adolescent Research, 25(5), 743–777. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558410371126

43.

Kins

Beyers

Soenens

Vansteenkiste

(2009). Patterns of home leaving and subjective well-being in emerging adulthood: The role of motivational processes and parental autonomy support. Developmental Psychology, 45(5), 1416–1429. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015580

44.

Kins

Soenens

Beyers

(2012). Parental psychological control and dysfunctional separation–individuation: A tale of two different dynamics. Journal of Adolescence, 35(5), 1099–1109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.02.017

45.

Kline

R. B.

(2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford publications.

46.

Koepke

Denissen

J. J.

(2012). Dynamics of identity development and separation– individuation in parent–child relationships during adolescence and emerging adulthood– A conceptual integration. Developmental Review, 32(1), 67–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2012.01.001

47.

Komidar

Zupančič

Puklek Levpušček

Bjornsen

C. A.

(2016). Development of the short version of the individuation test for emerging adults (ITEA–S) and its measurement invariance across Slovene and U.S. Emerging adults. Journal of Personality Assessment, 98(6), 626–639. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2016.1171231

48.

Komidar

Zupančič

Sočan

Puklek Levpušček

(2014). Development and construct validation of the individuation test for emerging adults (ITEA). Journal of Personality Assessment, 96(5), 503–514. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2013.850703

49.

Lanctot

Poulin

(2018). Emerging adulthood features and adjustment: A person-centered approach. Emerging Adulthood, 6(2), 91–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696817706024

50.

Lapierre

Poulin

(2020). Friendship instability and depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood. Journal of American College Health, 1(5), 1306–1310. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2020.1801693

51.

Lefkowitz

E. S.

(2005). “Things have gotten better”: Developmental changes among emerging adults after the transition to university. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20(1), 40–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558404271236

52.

Lindell

A. K.

Killoren

S. E.

Campione-Barr

(2020). Parent-child relationship quality and emotional adjustment among college students: The role of parental financial support. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships. 38(2), 459–481, https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407520964870

53.

Luyckx

Klimstra

T. A.

Duriez

Van Petegem

Beyers

(2013). Personal identity processes from adolescence through the late 20s: Age trends, functionality, and depressive symptoms. Social Development, 22(4), 701–721. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12027

54.

Mahler

M. S.

(1963). Thoughts about development and individuation (reprinted 1979). In Mahler

M. S.

(Ed.), Selected papers. Separation and individuation (Vol. 2). Aronson.

55.

Mayhew

M. J.

Rockenbach

A. N.

Bowman

N. A.

Seifert

T. A.

Wolniak

G. C.

(2016). How college affects students: 21st century evidence that higher education works (Vol. 3). John Wiley & Sons.

56.

Mendonça

Fontaine

A. M.

(2013). Late nest leaving in Portugal: Its effects on individuation and parent–child relationships. Emerging Adulthood, 1(3), 233–244. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696813481773

57.

Mitchell

L. L.

Syed

(2015). Does college matter for emerging adulthood? Comparing developmental trajectories of educational groups. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44(11), 2012–2027. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0330-0

58.

Muthén

L. K.

Muthén

(2017). Mplus user's guide: Statistical analysis with latent variables, user's guide. Muthén & Muthén.

59.

Nelson

L. J.

(2020). The theory of emerging adulthood 20 years later: A look at where it has taken us, what we know now, and where we need to go. Emerging Adulthood, 9(3), 179–188. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696820950884

60.

Noon

E. J.

Vranken

Schreurs

(2022). Age matters? The moderating effect of age on the longitudinal relationship between upward and downward comparisons on Instagram and identity processes during emerging adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 1, 216769682210982. https://doi.org/10.11772F21676968221098293

61.

Padilla-Walker

L. M.

Son

Nelson

L. J.

(2019). Profiles of helicopter parenting, parental warmth, and psychological control during emerging adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 9(2), 132–144. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696818823626

62.

Reifman

Arnett

J. J.

Colwell

M. J.

(2007). Emerging adulthood: Theory, assessment and application. Journal of Youth Development, 2(1), 37–48. https://doi.org/10.5195/jyd.2007.359

63.

Reis

Buhl

H. M.

(2008). Individuation during adolescence and emerging adulthood–five German studies. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 32(5), 369–371. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0165025408093653

64.

Sager

J. C.

(2015). The Relationship Between Academic and Psychological Help Seeking and Attachment Styles. Senior Theses, Trinity College, Hartford, CT. http://digitalrepository.trincoll.edu/theses/

65.

Salvatore

(2018). Emerging adulthood: A time of instability, exploration, and change. In Sex, Crime, Drugs, and Just Plain Stupid Behaviors (pp. 19–30). Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72766-0_3

66.

Scharf

Mayseless

Kivenson-Baron

(2004). Adolescents' attachment representations and developmental tasks in emerging adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 40(3), 430–444. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.40.3.430

67.

Schnyders

C. M.

Lane

J. A.

(2018). Gender, parent and peer relationships, and identification with emerging adulthood among college students. Journal of College Counseling, 21(3), 239–251. https://doi.org/10.1002/jocc.12106

68.

Schwartz

S. E.

Kanchewa

S. S.

Rhodes

J. E.

Gowdy

Stark

A. M.

Horn

J. P.

(2018). “I'm having a little struggle with this, can you help me out?”: Examining impacts and processes of a social capital intervention for first-generation college students. American Journal of Community Psychology, 61(1–2), 166–178. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12206

69.

Schwartz

S. J.

(2016). Turning point for a turning point. Advancing emerging adulthood theory and research. Emerging Adulthood, 4(5), 307–317. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2167696815624640

70.

Schwartz

S. J.

Côté

J. E.

Arnett

J. J.

(2005). Identity and agency in emerging adulthood: Two developmental routes in the individualization process. Youth & Society, 37(2), 201–229. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0044118X05275965

71.

Segrin

Bowers

(2019). Reciprocal effects of transitional instability, problem drinking, and drinking motives in emerging adulthood. Current Psychology, 38(2), 376–386. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-017-9617-5

72.

Seiter

L. N.

Nelson

L. J.

(2011). An examination of emerging adulthood in college students and nonstudents in India. Journal of Adolescent Research, 26(4), 506–536. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0743558410391262

73.

Shulman

(2017). The emerging adulthood years: Finding one’s way in career and intimate love relationships. The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 70(1), 40–62. https://doi.org/10.1080/00797308.2016.1277123

74.

Smith

R. L.

Carroll

A. M.

Callaghan

K. T.

Rowcliffe

M. A.

Sullivan

M. A.

Steckler

D. C.

(2015). Emerging adulthood: A college student, middle class perk? Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research, 20(2), 80–85, https://doi.org/10.24839/2164-8204.jn20.2.80

75.

Smollar

Youniss

(1989). Transformations in adolescents' perceptions of parents. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 12(1), 71–84. https://doi.org/10.1177/016502548901200104

76.

StataCorp

L. P.

(2017). Stata data analysis and statistical Software. Edition Release.

77.

Syed

Mitchell

L. L.

(2013). Race, ethnicity, and emerging adulthood: Retrospect and prospects. Emerging Adulthood, 1(2), 83–95. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696813480503

78.

Vosylis

Klimstra

(2020). How does financial life shape emerging adulthood? Short- term longitudinal associations between perceived features of emerging adulthood, financial behaviors, and financial well-being. Emerging Adulthood, 10, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696820908970

79.

Walker

Iverson

(2016). Identity development and political self-regulation in emerging adult political attitudes and behavior. Emerging Adulthood, 4(3), 153–160. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F2167696815585052

80.

Wider

Mustapha

Bahari

Halik

M. H.

(2016). Parental attachment as the predictor of emerging adulthood experiences. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities, 24(4), 1713–1736.

81.

Williams

K. E.

Ciarrochi

(2020). Perceived parenting styles and values development: A longitudinal study of adolescents and emerging adults. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 30(2), 541–558. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12542

82.

A. D.

Zhen

Zumbo

B. D.

(2007). Decoding the meaning of factorial invariance and updating the practice of multi-group confirmatory factor analysis: A demonstration with TIMSS data. Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation, 12(3), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.7275/mhqa-cd89

83.

Youniss

Smollar

(1985). Adolescent relations with mothers, fathers, and friends. University Press.

84.

Zorotovich

Johnson

E. I.

(2019). Five dimensions of emerging adulthood: A comparison between college students, nonstudents, and graduates. College Student Journal, 53(3), 376–384.

85.

Zupančič

Kavčič

(2014). Student personality traits predicting individuation in relation to mothers and fathers. Journal of Adolescence, 37(5), 715–726. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.12.005

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.16 MB