This study used a mixed-methods approach to examine the memorable sexual messages emerging adult women received from mothers, fathers, friends/peers, and online media in their lifetime, and the patterns in which these messages were received. Our sample included 192 college-attending women (81.8% heterosexual, 57.3% White) ages 18–25 (M = 19.4, SD = 1.4) from a southeastern U.S. university. Through content analysis of open-ended responses to an online survey, we identified ten main categories of memorable sexual messages. The majority focused on pregnancy/STI avoidance, sexual violence avoidance, no messages, sex positive messages, and waiting, with varying frequencies across sources. Results of a latent class analysis showed six distinct classes of messages received, with the largest class reporting no memorable messages from all sources. These results indicate that some emerging adult women receive similar messages and others conflicting messages from different sources that can shape their sexual development. We discuss implications for programming.
AndersK. M.GoodcaseE.YazedjianA.ToewsM. L. (2020). “Sex is easier to get and love is harder to find”: Costs and rewards of hooking up among first-year college students. The Journal of Sex Research, 57(2), 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2019.1667946
2.
ArnettJ. J. (2014). Emerging adulthood: The winding road from the late teens through the twenties. Oxford University Press.
3.
AstleS.McAllisterP.EmanuelsS.RogersJ.ToewsM.YazedjianA. (2021). Just be open about it or turn up the radio: A qualitative analysis of parent-child sexual communication experiences in adolescence. Sexuality Research and Social Policy. Advancedonline publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-020-00530-1
4.
AstleS.ShigetoA.AndersK.RodriguezK.RajeshP. (2022). Emerging adult men’s reports of sexual messages and desired support from parents, friends/peers, and online media in making sexual decisions during college. Sexuality Research and Social Policy. Advanced online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-022-00696-w
5.
AstleS.ToewsM.TophamG.VennumA. (2021). To talk or not to talk: An analysis of parents’ intentions to talk with children about different sexual topics using the theory of planned behavior. Sexuality Research and Social Policy. Advancedonline publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-021-00587-6
6.
BanduraA. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall.
7.
BleakleyA.KhuranaA.HennessyM.EllithorpeM. (2018). How patterns of learning about sexual information among adolescents are related to sexual behaviors. Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 50(1), 15–23. https://doi.org/10.1363/psrh.12053
BrickmanJ.WilloughbyJ. F. (2017). ‘You shouldn’t be making people feel bad about having sex’: Exploring young adults’ perceptions of a sex-positive sexual health text message intervention. Sex Education, 17(6), 621–634. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681811.2017.1332582
10.
BrownD. L.RosnickC. B.Webb-BradleyT.KirnerJ. (2014). Does daddy know best? Exploring the relationship between paternal sexual communication and safe sex practices among African-American women. Sex Education, 14(3), 241–256. http://doi.org/10.1080/14681811.2013.868800
11.
ChesserS.ParryD.Penny LightT. (2019). Nurturing the erotic self: Benefits of women consuming sexually explicit materials. Sexualities, 22(7-8), 1234–1252. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363460718791898
12.
CoffeltT. A. (2017). Deciding to reveal sexual information and sexuality education in mother-daughter relationships. Sex Education, 17(5), 571–587. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681811.2017.1326377
13.
CollinsC. L.AngeraJ. L.LattyC. R. (2008). College aged females’ perceptions of their fathers as sexuality educators. Journal of Ethnographic & Qualitative Research, 2(2), 81–90.
14.
CreswellJ. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions (2nd ed.). Sage.
15.
EvansR.WidmanL.KamkeK.StewartJ. L. (2019). Gender differences in parents’ communication with their adolescent children about sexual risk and sex-positive topics. The Journal of Sex Research. Advanced online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2019.1661345
16.
FasulaA. M.CarryM.MillerK. S. (2014). A multidimensional framework for the meanings of the sexual double standard and its application for the sexual health of young black women in the U.S. The Journal of Sex Research, 51(2), 170–183. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2012.716874
17.
FloresD.BarrosoJ. (2017). 21st century parent–child sex communication in the United States: A process review. The Journal of Sex Research, 54(4–5), 532–548. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1267693
18.
FriedmanA. L.BloodgoodB. (2010). “Something we’d rather not talk about”: Findings from the CDC exploratory research on sexually transmitted disease communication with girls and women. Journal of Women’s Health, 19(10), 1823–1831. http://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2010.1961
19.
FriedmanC. K.MorganE. M. (2009). Comparing Sexual-Minority and Heterosexual Young Women’s Friends and Parents as Sources of Support for Sexual Issues. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38(7), 920–936. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9361-0
20.
GarciaJ. R.ReiberC.MasseyS. G.MerriwetherA. M. (2012). Sexual hookup culture: A review. Review of General Psychology, 16(2), 161–176. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027911
21.
GisevN.BellJ. S.ChenT. F. (2013). Interrater agreement and interrater reliability: Key concepts, approaches, and applications. Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy, 9(3), 330–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sapharm.2012.04.004
22.
GoldfarbE.LiebermanL.KwiatkowskiS.SantosP. (2018). Silence and censure: A qualitative analysis of young adults’ reflections on communication with parents prior to first sex. Journal of Family Issues, 39(1), 28–54. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X15593576
23.
Guilamo-RamosV.BourisA.LeeJ.McCarthyK.MichaelS. L.Pitt-BarnesS.DittusP. (2012). Paternal influences on adolescent sexual risk behaviors: A structured literature review. Pediatrics, 130(5), e1313–e1325. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2011-2066
24.
GunningJ. N.Cooke-JacksonA.RubinskyV. (2020). Negotiating shame, silence, abstinence, and period sex: Women’s shift from harmful memorable messages about reproductive and sexual health. American Journal of Sexuality Education, 15(1), 111–137. https://doi.org/10.1080/15546128.2019.1669511
HalpernC. T.KaestleC. E. (2014). Sexuality in emerging adulthood. In TolmanD. L.DiamondL. M.BauermeisterJ. A., et al., (Eds.) APA handbook of sexuality and psychology (1, pp. 487–522). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14193-016
27.
HardenK. P. (2014). A sex-positive framework for research on adolescent sexuality. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9(5), 455–469. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691614535934
28.
HolmanA.KellasJ. K. (2018). “Say something instead of nothing”: Adolescents’ perceptions of memorable conversations about sex-related topics with their parents. Communication Monographs, 85(3), 357–379. https://doi.org/10.1080/03637751.2018.1426870
29.
HsiehH. F.ShannonS. E. (2005). Three approaches to qualitative content analysis. Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277–1288. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049732305276687
30.
JohnsonA. L.OrbeM. P.Cooke-JacksonA. (2014). “Let’s talk about sex”: Exploring HBCU student memorable message narratives. Howard Journal of Communications, 25(3), 303–323. https://doi.org/10.1080/10646175.2014.925309
31.
KauffmanL.OrbeM. P.JohnsonA. L.Cooke-JacksonA. (2013). Memorable familial messages about sex: A qualitative content analysis of college student narratives. Electronic Journal of Human Sexuality, 16, 1–10.
32.
KimJ. L.WardL. M. (2007). Silence speaks volumes: Parental sexual communication among Asian American emerging adults. Journal of Adolescent Research, 22(1), 3–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558406294916
KrippendorffK. (2013). Commentary: A dissenting view on so-called paradoxes of reliability coefficients. Annals of the International Communication Association, 36(1), 481–499. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2013.11679143
35.
KubicekK.BeyerW. J.WeissG.IversonE.KipkeM. D. (2010). In the dark: Young men’s stories of sexual initiation in the absence of relevant sexual health information. Health Education & Behavior, 37(2), 243–263. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198109339993
36.
LanzaS. T.RhoadesB. L. (2013). Latent class analysis: An alternative perspective on subgroup analysis in prevention and treatment. Prevention Science, 14(2), 157–168. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-011-0201-1
37.
LeathS.JeraldM. C.PerkinsT.JonesM. K. (2021). A qualitative exploration of jezebel stereotype endorsement and sexual behaviors among black college women. Journal of Black Psychology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798421997215
38.
LeathS.PittmanJ. C.GrowerP.WardL. M. (2020). Steeped in shame: An exploration of family sexual socialization among black college women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 44(4), 450–467. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684320948539
39.
LefkowitzE. S.BooneT. L.ShearerC. L. (2004). Communication with best friends about sex-related topics during emerging adulthood. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33(4), 339–351. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOYO.0000032642.27242.c1
40.
LefkowitzE. S.Espinosa-HernandezG. (2007). Sex-related communication with mothers and close friends during the transition to university. The Journal of Sex Research, 44(1), 17–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490709336789
41.
LindbergL. D.Maddow-ZimetI.BoonstraH. (2016). Changes in adolescents’ receipt of sex education, 2006–2013. Journal of Adolescent Health, 58(6), 621–627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.02.004
42.
Making Caring Common. (2018). The talk: How adults can promote young people’s healthy relationships and prevent misogyny and sexual harassment.Harvard Graduate School of Education. https://mcc.gse.harvard.edu/reports/the-talk
43.
ManagoA. M.WardL. M.AldanaA. (2015). The sexual experience of Latino young adults in college and their perceptions of values about sex communicated by their parents and friends. Emerging Adulthood, 3(1), 14–23. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696814536165
44.
MooreE.Berkley-PattonJ.BohnA.HawesS.Bowe-ThompsonC. (2015). Beliefs about sex and parent-child-church sex communication among church-based African American youth. Journal of Religion and Health, 54(5), 1810–1825. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-014-9950-z
PetersonS. H. (2007). The importance of fathers: Contextualizing sexual risk-taking in “low-risk” African American adolescent girls. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 15(2–3), 329–346. http://doi.org/10.1300/J137v15n02_19
48.
RitchwoodT. D.PeasantC.PowellT. W.TaggartT.Corbie-SmithG.AkersA. Y. (2018). Predictors of caregiver communication about reproductive and sexual health and sensitive sex topics. Journal of Family Issues, 39(8), 2207–2231. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X17741920
49.
RogersA. A.HaT.StormshakE. A.DishionT. J. (2015). Quality of parent–adolescent conversations about sex and adolescent sexual behavior: An observational study. Journal of Adolescent Health, 57(2), 174–178. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2015.04.010
50.
RubinskyV.Cooke-JacksonA. (2017). “Tell me something other than to use a condom and sex is scary”: Memorable messages women and gender minorities wish for and recall about sexual health. Women’s Studies in Communication, 40(4), 379–400. https://doi.org/10.1080/07491409.2017.1368761
51.
RubinskyV.GunningJ. N.Cooke-JacksonA. (2020). “I thought I was dying:” (Un) supportive communication surrounding early menstruation experiences. Journal of Health Communication, 35(2), 242–252. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2018.1548337
52.
SakalukJ. K.ToddL. M.MilhausenR.LachowskyN. J.Undergraduate Research Group in Sexuality (URGiS). (2014). Dominant heterosexual sexual scripts in emerging adulthood: Conceptualization and measurement. The Journal of Sex Research, 51(5), 516–531. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2012.745473
53.
SmithS. G.CookS. L. (2008). Disclosing Sexual Assault to Parents: The Influence of Parental Messages About Sex. Violence Against Women, 14(11), 1326–1348. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801208325086
54.
SunW. H.MiuH. Y. H.WongC. K. H.TuckerJ. D.WongW. C. W. (2018). Assessing participation and effectiveness of the peer-led approach in youth sexual health education: Systematic review and meta-analysis in more developed countries. The Journal of Sex Research, 55(1), 31–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1247779
55.
TeitelmanA. M.BohinskiJ. M.BoenteA. (2009). The social context of sexual health and sexual risk for urban adolescent girls in the United States. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 30(7), 460–469. https://doi.org/10.1080/01612840802641735
56.
TrinhS. L. (2016). “Enjoy your sexuality, but do it in secret”: Exploring undergraduate women’s reports of friends’ sexual communications. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 40(1), 96–107. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684315596914
57.
VillarrealK. M.WileyD. C.HousmanJ.Martinez-RamosG. (2016). Attitudes about partner communication regarding contraceptive use among Hispanic male college students. Journal of American College Health, 64(4), 279–287. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2015.1117467
58.
WarwickR. M.ArayaA. C.ShumerD. E.SelkieE. M. (2021). Transgender youths’ sexual health and education: A qualitative analysis. Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpag.2021.09.011
59.
WidmanL.Choukas-BradleyS.HelmsS. W.GolinC. E.PrinsteinM. J. (2014). Sexual communication between early adolescents and their dating partners, parents, and best friends. The Journal of Sex Research, 51(7), 731–741. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2013.843148
60.
WidmanL.Choukas-BradleyS.NoarS. M.NesiJ.GarrettK. (2016). Parent-adolescent sexual communication and adolescent safer sex behavior: A meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics, 170(1), 52–61. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2015.2731
61.
WilliamsT. T.PichonL. C.CampbellB. (2015). Sexual health communication within religious African-American families. Journal of Health Communication, 30(4), 328–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2013.856743
62.
WrightP. J. (2009). Father-child sexual communication in the United States: A review and synthesis. Journal of Family Communication, 9(4), 233–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15267430903221880
63.
WurptsI. C.GeiserC. (2014). Is adding more indicators to a latent class analysis beneficial or detrimental? Results of a Monte-Carlo study. Frontiers in Psychology, 5(21), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00920
