Qualitative methods are viewed as central to the theory of emerging adulthood, but there remains a relative dearth of qualitative inquiry that fully captures the richness and complexities of emerging adulthood life. One of the challenges to conducting such research is the lack of familiarity with qualitative methods. Accordingly, this article describes foundational issues in qualitative inquiry by delineating the commonalities among all qualitative approaches. Meta-theoretical issues regarding ontology, epistemology, and methodology are discussed, as rigorous qualitative inquiry must always be aware of and transparent about how these issues inform and constrain the methods used. A step-by-step guide––including design of research questions, methods of data collection, sampling, and analysis––is presented to demonstrate how to conduct research that fully utilizes the affordances of rigorous qualitative inquiry. Examples from research on emerging adulthood are used to illustrate each decision made during the qualitative inquiry research process.
AngrosinoM.RosenbergJ. (2013). Observations on observation: Continuities and challenges. In DenzinN. K.LincolnY. S. (Eds.), Collecting and interpreting qualitative materials (4th ed., pp. 151–176). London, England: Sage.
2.
ArnettJ. J. (2004). Emerging adulthood: The winding road from the late teens through the twenties. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
3.
ArnettJ. J. (2006). The psychology of emerging adulthood: What is known, and what remains to be known? In ArnettJ. J.TannerJ. L. (Eds.), Emerging adults in America: Coming of age in the 21st century (pp. 303–330). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
4.
ArnettJ. J. (2008a). From “worm food” to “infinite bliss”: Emerging adults’ views of life after death. In LernerR. M.RoeserR. W.PhelpsE. (Eds.), Positive youth development and spirituality: From theory to research (pp. 231–243). West Conshohocken, PA: Templeton Foundation Press.
5.
ArnettJ. J. (2008b). The neglected 95%: Why American psychology needs to become less American. American Psychologist, 63, 602–614.
6.
ArnettJ. J. (2011). Emerging adulthood(s): The cultural psychology of a new life stage. In JensenL. A. (Ed.), Bridging cultural and developmental approaches to psychology (pp. 255–275). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
7.
ArnettJ. J.TannerJ. L. (2011). Themes and variations in emerging adulthood across social classes. In ArnettJ. J.KloepM.HendryL. B.TannerJ. L. (Eds.), Debating emerging adulthood: Stage or process? (pp. 31–50). New York, NY: Oxford.
8.
AtkinsonP.CoffeyA.DelamontS.LoflandJ.LoflandL. (Eds.). (2007). Handbook of ethnography. London, England: Sage.
9.
BambergM. (2013). Narrative analysis. In CooperH. (Ed.), APA handbook of research methods in psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 85–102). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
10.
BambergM.De FinaA.SchiffrinD. (2011). Discourse and identity construction. In SchwartzS. J.LuyckxK.VignolesV. L. (Eds.), Handbook of identity theory and research (Vol. 1, pp. 177–199). New York, NY: Springer.
11.
BergerP. L.LuckmannT. (1967). The social construction of reality: A treatise in the sociology of knowledge. New York, NY: Anchor Books.
12.
BornsteinM. H.JagerJ.PutnickD. L. (2013). Sampling in developmental science: Situations, shortcomings, solutions, and standards. Developmental Review, 33, 357–370.
13.
BraunV.ClarkeV. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3, 77–101.
14.
BriggsC. L. (1986). Learning how to ask: A sociolinguistic appraisal of the role of the interview in social science research. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
15.
BrinkmannS.JacobsenM. H.KristiansenS. (2014). Historical overview of qualitative research in the social sciences. In LeavyP. (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of qualitative research (pp. 17–42). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
16.
Brydon-MillerM. (1997). Participatory action research: Psychology and social change. Journal of Social Issues, 53(4), 657–666.
17.
BurrV. (2003). Social constructionism (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Routledge.
18.
Carrera-FernándezM.Guàrdia-OlmosJ.Peró-CebolleroM. (2014). Qualitative methods of data analysis in psychology: An analysis of the literature. Qualitative Research, 14(1), 20–36.
ClandininD. J.ConnellyF. M. (2004). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
21.
ComteA. (2009). A general view of positivism. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. (original work published 1856)
22.
CorbinJ.StraussA. (2008). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
23.
CreswellJ. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
24.
CreswellJ. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
25.
CreswellJ. W.Plano ClarkV. L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
26.
CrottyM. (1998). The foundations of social research: Meaning and perspective in the research process. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
27.
DenzinN. K. (2009). The elephant in the living room: Or extending the conversation about the politics of evidence. Qualitative Research, 9(2), 139–160.
28.
DenzinN. K.LincolnY. S. (Eds.). (2011). The Sage handbook of qualitative research (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
29.
DworkinJ. (2005). Risk taking as developmentally appropriate experimentation for college students. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20(2), 219–241.
30.
FineM.TorreM. E.BoudinK.BowenI.ClarkJ.HyltonD.…UpeguiD. (2003). Participatory action research: From within and beyond prison bars. In CamicP. M.RhodesJ. E.YardleyL. (Eds.), Qualitative research in psychology: Expanding perspectives in methodology and design (pp. 173–198). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
31.
FlickU. (2009). An introduction to qualitative research (3rd ed.). London, England: Sage.
32.
GarfinkelH. (1967). Studies in ethnomethodology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
33.
GeertzC. (1973). The interpretation of cultures. New York, NY: Basic Books.
34.
GergenK. J. (1991). The saturated self: Dilemmas of identity in contemporary life. New York, NY: Basic Books.
35.
GergenK. J. (2009). An invitation to social construction (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
36.
GergenK. J.JosselsonR.FreemanM. (2015). The promises of qualitative inquiry. American Psychologist, 70, 1–9.
37.
GilliganC.SpencerR.WeinbergM. K.BertschT. (2006). On the listening guide: A voice-centered relational method. In Hesse-BiberS. N.LeavyP. (Eds.), Emergent methods in social research (pp. 253–272). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
38.
GubriumJ. F.HolsteinJ. A. (1997). The new language of qualitative method. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
39.
HackingI. (1999). The social construction of what?Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
JessorR.ColbyA.ShwederR. A. (Eds.). (1996). Ethnography and human development: Context and meaning in social inquiry. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
47.
KangH.OkazakiS.AbelmannN.Kim-PrietoC.LanS. (2010). Redeeming immigrant parents: How Korean American emerging adults reinterpret their childhood. Journal of Adolescent Research, 25, 441–464.
48.
KatsiaficasD.Suárez-OrozcoC.DiasS. I. (2015). “When do I feel like an adult?”: Latino and Afro-Caribbean immigrant-origin community college students’ conceptualizations and experiences of (emerging) adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 3, 98–112.
49.
KerrickM. R.ThorneA. (2014). “So it’s like, do you like Jeff a lot or, I mean …”: How women friends interactionally position personal identity while conversing about desire. Emerging Adulthood, 2, 294–303.
50.
KidderL. H.FineM. (1987). Qualitative and quantitative methods: When stories converge. New Directions for Program Evaluation, 1987, 57–75.
51.
KitzingerJ. (1994). The methodology of focus groups: The importance of interaction between research participants. Sociology of Health & Illness, 16, 103–121.
52.
KnightK. (2014). Communicative dilemmas in emerging adults’ friends with benefits relationships: Challenges to relational talk. Emerging Adulthood, 2, 270–279.
53.
KonstamV. (2007). Emerging and young adulthood: Multiple perspectives, diverse narratives. New York, NY: Springer.
54.
KrippendorffK. (2013). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
55.
LaceyH. (1999). Is science value free? Values and scientific understanding. New York, NY: Routledge.
56.
LedermanR. (1990). Pretexts for ethnography: On reading fieldnotes. In SanjekR. (Ed.), Fieldnotes: The makings of anthropology (pp. 71–91). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
57.
Lichtwarck-AschoffA.KunnenS.van GeertP. (2010). Adolescent girls’ perceptions of daily conflicts with their mothers: Within-conflict sequences and their relationship to autonomy. Journal of Adolescent Research, 25, 527–556.
58.
MarecekJ. (2003). Dancing through minefields: Toward a qualitative stance in psychology. In CamicP. M.RhodesJ. E.YardleyL. (Eds.), Qualitative research in psychology: Expanding perspectives in methodology and design (pp. 49–69). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
59.
MaxwellJ. A. (2005). Qualitative research design: An interactive approach (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
60.
McAdamsD. P.BauerJ. J.SakaedaA. R.AnyidohoN. A.MachadoM. A.Magrino-FaillaK.…PalsJ. L. (2006). Continuity and change in the life story: A longitudinal study of autobiographical memories in emerging adulthood. Journal of Personality, 74, 1371–1400.
61.
MilesM. B.HubermanA. M.SaldañaJ. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
62.
MishlerE. G. (1986). The analysis of interview-narratives. In SarbinT. R. (Ed.), Narrative psychology: The storied nature of human conduct (pp. 233–255). New York, NY: Praeger.
63.
MorganD. L. (1997). Focus groups as qualitative research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
64.
MorganE. M.KorobovN. (2012). Interpersonal identity formation in conversations with close friends about dating relationships. Journal of Adolescence, 35, 1471–1483.
65.
NelsonP. A.ThorneA.ShapiroL. A. (2011). I’m outgoing and she’s reserved: The reciprocal dynamics of personality in close friendships in young adulthood. Journal of Personality, 79, 1113–1147.
66.
PopperK. (1959). The logic of scientific discovery. London, England: Routledge.
67.
PotterJ. (2012). Discourse analysis and discursive psychology. In CooperH. (Ed.), APA handbook of research methods in psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 119–138). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
68.
PowersL. E.GarnerT.ValnesB.SquireP.TurnerA.CoutureT.DertingerR. (2007). Building a successful adult life: Findings from youth-directed research. Exceptionality, 15, 45–56.
69.
RadmacherK.AzmitiaM. (2013). Unmasking class: How upwardly mobile poor and working-class emerging adults negotiate an ‘invisible’ identity. Emerging Adulthood, 1, 314–329.
70.
RiosS. J.RoccoT. S. (2014). From foster care to college: Barriers and supports on the road to postsecondary education. Emerging Adulthood, 2, 227–237.
71.
RoulstonK.deMarraisK.LewisJ. B. (2003). Learning to interview in the social sciences. Qualitative Inquiry, 9, 643–668.
72.
RowanN.WulffD. (2007). Using qualitative methods to inform scale development. The Qualitative Report, 12, 450–466.
73.
SakalukJ. K.ToddL. M.MilhausenR.LachowskyN. J. (2014). Dominant heterosexual sexual scripts in emerging adulthood: Conceptualization and measurement. Journal of Sex Research, 51, 516–531.
74.
SanchezZ. M.OpaleyeE. S.ChavesT. V.NotoA. R.NappoS. A. (2011). God forbids or Mom disapproves? Religious beliefs that prevent drug use among youth. Journal of Adolescent Research, 26, 591–616.
75.
SchachterE. P. (2002). Identity constraints: The perceived structural requirements of a ‘good’ identity. Human Development, 45, 416–433.
76.
SchachterE. P. (2004). Identity configurations: A new perspective on identity formation in contemporary society. Journal of Personality, 72, 167–199.
77.
SchwabJ. R. (2013). Religious meaning making: Positioning identities through stories. Psychology of Religion & Spirituality, 5, 219–226.
78.
ShankG. D. (2002). Qualitative research: A personal skills approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall.
79.
SilvermanD. (2011). Interpreting qualitative data: A guide to the principles of qualitative research (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
80.
SinclairJ.MilnerD. (2005). On being Jewish: A qualitative study of identity among British Jews in emerging adulthood. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20, 91–117.
SpradleyJ. P. (1979). The ethnographic interview. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
83.
SpradleyJ. P. (1980). Participant observation. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
84.
SyedM. (2005). Theoretical and methodological contributions of narrative psychology to ethnic identity research. In SantosC.Umaña-TaylorA. J. (Eds.), Studying ethnic identity: Methodological advances and considerations for future research (pp. 27–54) Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
85.
ToolisE. E.HammackP. L. (2015). The lived experience of homeless youth: A narrative approach. Qualitative Psychology, 2, 50–68.
86.
WeissR. S. (1994). Learning from strangers: The art and method of qualitative interview studies. New York, NY: Free Press.
87.
YardleyL. (2008). Demonstrating validity in qualitative psychology. In SmithJ. A. (Ed.), Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research methods (2nd ed., pp. 235–251). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
88.
YoshikawaH.WeisnerT. S.KalilA.WayN. (2008). Mixing qualitative and quantitative research in developmental science: Uses and methodological choices. Developmental Psychology, 44, 344–354.
