Although an important part of adult life, individuals with significant disabilities experience low rates of gainful employment. The purpose of this review was to summarize and analyze the literature on teaching vocational skills to individuals with significant disabilities. Sixty-two articles (with 75 experiments) included in this review were published between 1969 and 2014, and indicated that most participants were successfully taught to engage in a variety of vocational skills in a range of settings. Unfortunately, this review also determined that the research on teaching vocational skills to individuals with significant disabilities is steadily decreasing, with only 15 new studies published since 2000. Potential directions for future research will be proposed.
AgranM.Fodor-DavisJ.MooreS. C.DeerM. (1989). The application of a self-management program on instruction-following skills. Journal of the Association for Persons With Severe Handicaps, 14, 147–154.
2.
AgranM.Fodor-DavisJ.MooreS. C.MartellaR. C. (1992). Effects of peer-delivered self-instructional training on a lunch-making work task for students with severe disabilities. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 27, 230–240.
3.
AgranM.SalzbergC. L.StowitschekJ. J. (1987). An analysis of the effects of a social skills training program using self-instructions on the acquisition and generalization of two social behaviors in a work setting. Journal of the Association for Persons With Severe Handicaps, 12, 131–139.
4.
AlbertoP. A.SharptonW. R.BriggsA. (1986). Facilitating task acquisition through the use of a self-operated auditory prompting system. Journal of the Association for Persons With Severe Handicaps, 11, 85–91.
5.
AlwellM.CobbB. (2006). A map of the intervention literature in secondary special education transition. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 29, 3–27.
6.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.
7.
BambaraL. M.AgerC.KogerF. (1994). The effects of choice and task preference on the work performance of adults with severe disabilities. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 27, 555–556. doi:10.1901/jaba.1994.27-555
8.
BatesP.RenzagliaA.CleesT. (1980). Improving the work performance of severely/profoundly retarded young adults: The use of a changing criterion procedural design. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 15, 95–104.
9.
BeareP. L.SeversonS.BrandtP. (2004). The use of a positive procedure to increase engagement on-task and decrease challenging behavior. Behavior Modification, 28, 28–44. doi:10.1177/0145445503259217
10.
BelfioreP. J.Toro-ZambranaW. (1995). Programming for efficiency: The effects of motion economy on vocational tasks for adults with severe and profound mental retardation. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 16, 205–220. doi:10.1016/0891-4222(95)00009-C
11.
BennettK.BradyM. P.ScottJ.DukesC.FrainM. (2010). The effects of covert audio coaching on the job performance of supported employees. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 25, 173–185. doi:10.1177/1088357610371636
12.
BrowderD. M.LimL.LinC.BelfioreP. J. (1993). Applying therbligs to task analytic instruction: A technology to pursue?Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 28, 242–251.
13.
ButterworthJ.SmithF. A.Cohen HallA.MiglioreA.WinsorJ.DominD.Ciulla TimmonsJ. (2012). State data: The national report on employment services and outcomes 2011. Boston: Institute on Community Inclusion, University of Massachusetts Boston. Available from www.StateData.info
14.
CertoN.MezzulloK.HunterD. (1985). The effect of total task chain training on the acquisition of busperson job skills at a full service community restaurant. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 20, 148–156.
15.
ChangY.KangY.HuangP. (2013). An augmented reality (AR)-based vocational task prompting system for people with cognitive impairments. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 34, 3049–3056. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2013.06.026
16.
CihakD. F.KesslerK.AlbertoP. A. (2007). Generalized use of a handheld prompting system. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 28, 397–408. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2006.05.003
17.
CihakD. F.KesslerK.AlbertoP. A. (2008). Use of a handheld prompting system to transition independently through vocational tasks for students with moderate and severe intellectual disabilities. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 43, 102–110.
18.
ConnisR. T. (1979). The effects of sequential pictorial cues, self-recording, and praise on the job task sequencing of retarded adults. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 12, 355–361. doi:10.1901/jaba.1979.12-355
19.
DavisC. A.BradyM. P.WilliamsR. E.BurtaM. (1992). The effects of self-operated auditory prompting tapes on the performance fluency of persons with severe mental retardation. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 27, 39–50.
20.
FlexerR. W.NewberyJ. F.MartinA. S. (1979). Use of goal setting procedures in increasing task assembly rate of severely retarded workers. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 14, 177–184.
21.
FurnissF.WardA.LancioniG.RochaN.CunhaB.SeedhouseP.. . . WaddellN. (1999). A palmtop-based job aid for workers with severe intellectual disabilities. Technology and Disability, 10, 53–67.
22.
GastD. L. (2010) Single Subject Research Methodology in Behavioral Sciences. New York, NY: Routledge.
23.
Gaylord-RossC.ForteJ.Gaylord-RossR. (1986). The community classroom: Technological vocational training for students with serious handicaps. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 9, 24–33. doi:10.1177/088572888600900103
24.
GoldM. W. (1976). Task analysis of a complex assembly task by the retarded blind. Exceptional Children, 43, 78–84.
25.
HellerK. W.AllgoodM. H.WareS.ArnoldS. E.CastelleM. D. (1996). Initiating requests during community-based vocational training by students with mental retardation and sensory impairments. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 17, 173–184. doi:10.1016/0891-4222(95)00040-2
26.
HellerK. W.BiggeJ. L.AllgoodP. (2005). Adaptations for personal independence. In BestS. J.HellerK. W.BiggeJ. L. (Eds.), Teaching individuals with physical or multiple disabilities (pp. 309–338). Columbus, OH: Prentice Hall.
27.
HughesC.RuschF. R. (1989). Teaching supported employees with severe mental retardation to solve problems. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 22, 365–372. doi:10.1901/jaba.1989.22-365
28.
Human Services Research Institute. (2012). Working in the community: The status and outcomes of people with intellectual and developmental disabilities in integrated employment (NCI Data Brief). Cambridge, MA: Author.
29.
Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, PL 108-446, 20 U.S.C. §§ 1400 et seq.
30.
IrvinL. K.BellamyG. T. (1977). Manipulation of stimulus features in vocational-skill training of severely retarded individuals. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 81, 486–491.
31.
JensK. G.ShoresR. E. (1969). Behavioral graphs as reinforcers for work behavior of mentally retarded adolescents. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 4, 21–27.
32.
KarenR.EisnerM.EndresR. (1974). Behavior modification in a sheltered workshop for severely retarded students. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 79, 338–347.
33.
KellemsR. O.MorningstarM. E. (2012). Using video modeling delivered through iPods to teach vocational tasks to young adults with autism spectrum disorders. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 35, 155–167.
34.
LagomarcinoT. R.RuschF. R. (1989). Utilizing self-management procedures to teach independent performance. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 24, 297–305.
35.
LancioniG. E.CampodonicoF.MantiniM. (1998). An automatic prompting system for improving the performance of a woman with multiple disabilities. Scandinavian Journal of Behaviour Therapy, 27, 145–148. doi:10.1080/02845719808408508
36.
LancioniG. E.OlivaD. D.MeazziniP. P.MarconiN. N. (1993). Building choice opportunities within occupational programmes for persons with profound developmental disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 37, 23–39.
37.
LancioniG. E.SinghN. N.O’ReillyM. F.SigafoosJ.AlbertiG.PerilliV.. . . GroenewegJ. (2014). People with multiple disabilities learn to engage in occupation and work activities with the support of technology-aided programs. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35, 1264–1271. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2014.03.026
38.
LattimoreL.ParsonsM. B.ReidD. H. (2006). Enhancing job-site training of supported workers with autism: A reemphasis on simulation. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 39, 91–102.
39.
LeeD. L.BelfioreP. J.Toro-ZambranaW. (2001). The effects of mastery training and explicit feedback on task design preference in a vocational setting. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 22, 333–351.
40.
LinC. H.BrowderD. M. (1990). An application of the engineering principles of motion study for the development of task analyses. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 25, 367–375.
41.
MaceF. C.ShapiroE. S.WestB. J.CampbellC.AltmanJ. (1986). The role of reinforcement in reactive self-monitoring. Applied Research in Mental Retardation, 7, 315–327. doi:10.1016/S0270-3092(86)80004-2
42.
MaciagK. G.SchusterJ. W.CollinsB. C.CooperJ. T. (2000). Training adults with moderate and severe mental retardation in a vocational skill using a simultaneous prompting procedure. Education and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 35, 306–316.
43.
MankD. M.HornerR. H. (1987). Self-recruited feedback: A cost-effective procedure for maintaining behavior. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 8, 91–112. doi:10.1016/0891-4222(87)90042-4
44.
MartinG. L.KoopS.TurnerG.HanelF. (1981). Backward chaining versus total task presentation to teach assembly tasks to severely retarded persons. Behavior Research of Severe Developmental Disabilities, 2, 117–136.
45.
MartinM.HorsfallD. (1987). Training work skills for students with severe and multiple handicapping conditions. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 13, 151–159. doi:10.3109/13668258708998659
McNallyR. J.NorusisP. L.GentzS. A.McConathyL. C. (1983). Use of self-delivered reinforcement and group contingency management to increase productivity of severely retarded workers. Psychological Reports, 52, 499–503. doi:10.2466/pr0.1983.52.2.499
48.
MechlingL. C.Ortega-HurndonF. (2007). Computer-based video instruction to teach young adults with moderate intellectual disabilities to perform multiple step, job tasks in a generalized setting. Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities, 42, 24–37.
49.
MooreS. C.AgranM.Fodor-DavisJ. (1989). Using self-management strategies to increase the production rates of workers with severe handicaps. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 24, 324–332.
50.
MorganR. L.SalzbergC. L. (1992). Effects of video-assisted training on employment-related social skills of adults with severe mental retardation. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 25, 365–383. doi:10.1901/jaba.1992.25-365
51.
NewmanL.WagnerM.CametoR.KnokeyA. M.ShaverD. (2010). Comparisons across time of the outcomes of youth with disabilities up to 4 years after high school: A report of findings from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2). Menlo Park, CA: SRI International. Retrieved from www.nlts2.org/reports/2010_09/nlts2_report_2010_09_complete.pdf
52.
O’NeillC. T.BellamyG. T. (1978). Evaluation of a procedure for teaching saw chain assembly to a severely retarded woman. Mental Retardation, 16, 37–413.
53.
ParsonsM. B.ReidD. H.GreenC. W.BrowningL. B. (1999). Reducing individualized job coach assistance provided to persons with multiple severe disabilities in supported work. Journal of the Association for Persons With Severe Handicaps, 24, 292–297. doi:10.2511/rpsd.24.4.292
54.
ReichleJ.McComasJ.DahlN.SolbergG.PierceS.SmithD. (2005). Teaching an individual with severe intellectual delay to request assistance conditionally. Educational Psychology, 25, 275–286. doi:10.1080/0144341042000301201
55.
ReichowB.VolkmarF. R. (2010). Social skills interventions for individuals with autism: Evaluation for evidence-based practices within a best evidence synthesis framework. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40, 149–166. doi:10.1007/s10803-009-0842-0
56.
RenzagliaA.WehmannP.SchutzR.KaranO. (1978). Use of cue redundancy and positive reinforcement to accelerate production in two profoundly retarded workers. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 17, 183–187. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8260.1978.tb00262.x
57.
RuschF. R.McKeeM.Chadsey-RuschJ.RenzagliaA. (1988). Teaching a student with severe handicaps to self-instruct: A brief report. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 51–58.
58.
SalendS. J.EllisL. L.ReynoldsC. J. (1989). Using self-instruction to teach vocational skills to individuals who are severely retarded. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 24, 248–254.
59.
SaundersM. D.SaundersR. R. (1997). An analysis of stereotypy during prevocational instruction of an adolescent with severe mental retardation. Behavioral Interventions, 12, 1–26.
60.
Section 503 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, as amended 41 CFR §§ 60–741 and 60-742 (2014).
61.
SimmonsT. J.FlexerR. W. (1992). Community based job training for persons with mental retardation: An acquisition and performance replication. Education and Training in Mental Retardation, 27, 261–272.
62.
SowersJ.VerdiM.BourbeauP.SheehanM. (1985). Teaching job independence and flexibility to mentally retarded students through the use of a self-control package. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 81–85. doi:10.1901/jaba.1985.18-81
63.
SteedS. E.LutzkerJ. R. (1997). Using picture prompts to teach an adult with developmental disabilities to independently complete vocational tasks. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 9, 117–133.
64.
Toro-ZambranaW.LeeD. L.BelfioreP. J. (1999). The effects of response effort and choice on productivity. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 11, 287–293.
65.
VornholtK.UitdewilligenS.NijhuisF. J. (2013). Factors affecting the acceptance of people with disabilities at work: A literature review. Journal of Occupational Rehabilitation, 23, 463–475.
66.
WackerD.BergW. (1983). Effects of picture prompts on the acquisition of complex vocational tasks by mentally retarded adolescents. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 16, 417–433. doi:10.1901/jaba.1983.16-417
67.
WackerD.BergW. (1984a). Training adolescents with severe handicaps to set up job tasks independently using picture prompts. Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities, 4, 353–365. doi:10.1016/0270-4684(84)90024-7
68.
WackerD.BergW. (1984b). Use of peer instruction to train a complex photocopying task to moderately and severely retarded adolescents. Analysis and Intervention in Developmental Disabilities, 4, 219–234. doi:10.1016/0270-4684(84)90002-8
69.
WackerD.BergW.BerrieP.SwattaP. (1985). Generalization and maintenance of complex skills by severely handicapped adolescents following picture prompt training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 18, 329–336. doi:10.1901/jaba.1985.18-329
70.
WehmanP. (2006). Life beyond the classroom: Transition strategies for young people with disabilities. Brookes Publishing Company. Baltimore, MD.
71.
WehmanP.SchallC.McDonoughJ.MolinelliA.RiehleE.HamW.ThissW. R. (2013). Project SEARCH for youth with autism spectrum disorders: Increasing competitive employment on transition from high school. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 15, 144–155.
72.
WehmanP.SchutzR.BatesP.RenzagliaA.KaranO. (1978). Self-management programmes with mentally retarded workers: Implications for developing independent vocational behavior. British Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 17, 57–84. doi:10.1111/j.2044-8260.1978.tb00897.x
73.
WehmeyerM. L. (2014). Self-determination: A family affair. Family Relations, 63, 178–184. doi:10.1111/fare.12052
74.
WestE. A.PattonH. (2010). Positive behaviour support and supported employment for adults with severe disability. Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability, 35, 104–111.
75.
WilsonP.SchepisM.Mason-MainM. (1987). In vivo use of picture prompt training to increase independent work at a restaurant. Journal of the Association for Persons With Severe Handicaps, 12, 145–150. doi:10.1177/154079698701200209
76.
WoleryM.BusickM.ReichowB.BartonE. E. (2010). Comparison of overlap methods for quantitatively synthesizing single subject data. The Journal of Special Education, 44, 18–28. doi:10.1177/0022466908328009
77.
WoolcockW. W.LyonS. R.WoolcockK. P. (1987). General case simulation instruction and the establishment and maintenance of work performance. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 8, 427–447. doi:10.1016/0891-4222(87)90024-2
