Abstract
This study aims to examine the metaphorical perceptions of Turkish language teachers working in Türkiye toward Syrian refugee students. While language education plays a critical role in refugees’ social integration process, teachers’ perceptions of refugee students directly affect the success of this process. However, there are limited studies in Türkiye on the metaphorical perceptions held by teachers working with refugee students. A qualitative research method was adopted in the study, and metaphor analysis was employed. A total of 128 Turkish language teachers working within the scope of the Project for Supporting the Integration of Syrian Children into the Turkish Education System (PIKTES) participated in the research. Participants produced metaphors by completing the open-ended prompt, “Syrian refugee students are like … because ….” Through content analysis, these metaphors were coded and classified into three main categories: positive, negative, and neutral. The findings indicated that 74.22% of the teachers described refugee students through negative metaphors (e.g., “a bird with a broken wing,”“a flower torn from its branch”). While positive metaphors (19.53%) described refugees as potentially valuable individuals through expressions such as “sibling,”“young tree,” and “jewel,” neutral metaphors (6.25%) reflected an ambiguous perception through expressions such as “guest” and “rain.” Negative metaphors reveal that the integration of refugee students is largely perceived by teachers as problematic and challenging. The findings show that teachers’ perceptions play a critical role in the integration of refugee students into the education system and that current educational policies are insufficient, from the teachers’ perspective, in supporting this integration process. The study emphasizes the need to develop in-service training programs, increase cultural awareness efforts, and establish educational policies that encourage interaction between teachers and refugee students in order to improve teachers’ perceptions of refugee students. The findings contribute to both theoretical and applied studies in the field of refugee education and offer concrete recommendations for the development of teacher training programs.
Plain Language Summary
This study explores how Turkish language teachers in Turkey perceive Syrian refugee students through metaphors. Since language education is essential for refugee students’ social integration, teachers’ attitudes play a crucial role in this process. However, little research has examined teachers’ metaphorical views of refugee students in Turkey. The study involved 128 Turkish language teachers working under the Project on Promoting Integration of Syrian Kids into the Turkish Education System (PIKTES). Teachers were asked to complete the sentence: “Syrian refugee students are like … because ….” Their responses were analyzed and categorized into three groups: negative, positive, and neutral metaphors. Findings showed that most teachers (74.22%) used negative metaphors, such as “a bird with broken wings” and “a flower plucked from its branch,” indicating challenges and difficulties in integration. Some (19.53%) used positive metaphors like “brother,”“young tree,” and “jewel,” suggesting potential and value. A smaller group (6.25%) provided neutral metaphors like “guest” and “rain,” reflecting mixed or uncertain views. The dominance of negative metaphors suggests that many teachers see refugee students’ integration as difficult. This highlights the need for better teacher training and support programs. The study recommends in-service training, cultural awareness programs, and policies that encourage positive teacher-student interactions. These insights can help improve refugee education and support teachers in fostering a more inclusive learning environment.
Keywords
Introduction
Background
Migration as a phenomenon of social mobility is one of the oldest, deepest, and most multidimensional phenomena in human history. Since ancient times, people have migrated from one place to another for various reasons such as natural disasters, religion, poverty, wars, and conflicts (Kaypak & Bimay, 2016). With the constant transformation of global dynamics, migration now appears not merely as a geographical movement but as a complex process that reshapes socio-economic structures. In the 21st century, globalization, regional conflicts, and economic fluctuations have redefined migration movements in terms of both intensity and nature. According to the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA, 2021), more than 281 million people worldwide held international migrant status as of 2020. This situation requires migration to be addressed not only as individuals crossing borders, but also as a dynamic process that triggers social transformations (Castles et al., 2014). This is because migrants are not only subjects whose movements are shaped by structural factors, but also social actors who formulate their own strategies and life projects within the opportunities and conflicts of both origin and receiving societies, thereby contributing to the transformation of these societies (Joly, 2000). In this respect, migration, defined as a permanent or semi-permanent change of residence, may lead to both positive and negative consequences (E. S. Lee, 1966).
While wars, economic crises, and political instability are among the main triggers of forced migration, Türkiye has historically remained both a transit point and a destination country and has hosted various waves of migration (İçduygu & Diker, 2017a, 2017b; Kirişci, 2014). Major problems experienced in neighboring countries at different times have led Türkiye to face mass migration flows. For this reason, migration has been an important part of Türkiye’s history, and the country has hosted many migrants. At the same time, due to its geographical position, Türkiye has effectively functioned as a bridge between European Union states and many Asian and Middle Eastern countries experiencing various social, economic, and political problems (Demirhan & Aslan, 2015; Karataş & Ayyıldız, 2021).
The Syrian Refugee Crisis in Türkiye
The civil war that broke out in Syria in 2011 displaced millions of people, and Türkiye became one of the most prominent actors in this process. The number of Syrian refugees, who first entered Hatay on April 29, 2011, as a group of 260 people, increased rapidly as the war intensified; by 2022, Türkiye had become the country hosting the largest refugee population in the world, with approximately 3.7 million Syrian refugees (Directorate General of Migration Management, 2022; UNHCR, 2022). Although Türkiye admitted refugees under the Temporary Protection Regulation and granted access to health services, education, and limited labor rights (Turkish Grand National Assembly Human Rights Investigation Commission, 2012; Akşit et al., 2015), the integration process still faces serious barriers such as language obstacles and educational difficulties (Akkaya, 2013; E. M. Uzun & Bütün, 2016a).
The effects of this large-scale migration wave, extending from neighboring countries to Europe, and its long-term scope and scale remain uncertain. As the effects of the crisis on host countries have increased, so too has the demand to assess the needs arising in these countries (Yazgan et al., 2015). Factors such as education, cultural adaptation, and social participation directly affect migrants’ integration into host societies and their ability to realize their own potential. In this context, both social and cultural integration of migrants emerges as a critical issue.
Language Barriers and Challenges in Education
Language plays a key role in refugees’ social integration process. However, integration is not limited to the acquisition of language skills alone; rather, it must be evaluated within a broader framework that includes cultural adaptation, economic participation, and social acceptance (Prins & Toso, 2012; Rodríguez-Izquierdo et al., 2020). Language may function as a symbol of belonging or foreignness and thereby produce differentiation; at the same time, it may restrict cultural diversity and create problems of understanding and coordination in human relations (Esser, 2006). In this respect, Syrian refugees in particular face additional barriers, as individuals whose mother tongue is Arabic encounter difficulties in daily communication, education, and working life in a society where Turkish is dominant (Akkaya, 2013; E. M. Uzun & Bütün, 2016b).
For migrants, it is important that global and national policies develop permanent solutions and take steps toward integration rather than creating barriers and difficulties (Reed, 2018). Cultural and ethnic distinctions may restrict migrant communities’ access to opportunities and the gains they may achieve (Katseli et al., 2006). In this process, the capacity of public institutions to function adequately for migrants and to adapt to increasing diversity is of crucial importance (Penninx, 2019). With this awareness, Türkiye has made significant investments in language education programs for Syrian refugees. The Project for Supporting the Integration of Syrian Children into the Turkish Education System (PIKTES), launched in 2016 and expanded in scope in 2018, contributes to refugee children’s Turkish language learning process through specially trained teachers, digital learning tools, and an adapted curriculum (PIKTES, 2022; Tüzün, 2017).
The Role of Teachers and Their Metaphorical Perceptions
The relationship between students and teachers is critically important for students’ development. Some studies (Baker, 2006; Crosnoe et al., 2004; Davis, 2003; Hamre et al., 2008; Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Peguero & Bondy, 2011) have shown that students’ relationships with their teachers are an important factor in improving academic success, motivation, cognitive, emotional, and social development, social behavior, and self-esteem, and they have concluded that knowledge about the relationships migrant children establish with their teachers is quite limited. In addition, some studies (Foster, 2008; Hamre et al., 2008; Hamre & Pianta, 2001; Whitted & Dupper, 2008) report that migrant students attach greater value to teachers’ perceptions of them. In this context, Turkish language teachers assume a critical role by standing on the front line of Syrian refugee students’ language development and social integration processes. In this respect, teachers’ perceptions, attitudes, and instructional approaches directly affect students’ learning experiences and processes of social adjustment (Erdoğan, 2019; Kara et al., 2016).
However, the role of teachers who teach Turkish in this process and the interactions they establish with refugee students have not yet been examined sufficiently.
Metaphors are important cognitive tools that reveal how individuals perceive the world and make sense of complex phenomena (Eraslan, 2011; Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). Because metaphors are produced through a complex interaction among object, image, and meaning, they are greatly influenced by socio-cultural elements (H. S. Lee, 2006). During the production process, the mappings established between different conceptual domains generally move from the abstract to the concrete; in other words, concepts are grounded in the way we perceive and experience the world around us, as well as in our sensory-motor, cultural, and social experiences (Ibarretxe-Antuñano, 2013). When considered in the context of language, society, and culture, metaphors, as reflections of cultural cognition, express culturally constructed conceptualizations and the thought and meaning structures specific to communities (Sharifian, 2015). Therefore, metaphors—approached as linguistic, cognitive, emotional, and socio-cultural phenomena—are seen as products of a complex and dynamic system (Cameron, 2007) and are accepted as socio-culturally grounded products that constitute a critical component of language and, most importantly, a basic mechanism through which people conceptualize their lived experiences (Hoang, 2014).
Metaphors, which continue to exist in social memory as products of a shared culture, are multifaceted expressive elements that facilitate understanding and narration, add esthetic value to language, and contribute to durable learning in educational processes (Demir & Karakaş Yildirim, 2019). For this reason, expressing concepts and processes in education through metaphorical terms is quite common (Low, 2008). In this respect, the metaphorical expressions used by teachers enable us to understand how they see their students, how they define their roles in the educational process, and how they shape their pedagogical approaches (Özdemir & Öner-özkan, 2016; Saban et al., 2006). However, research on how teachers who teach Turkish to Syrian refugees interpret this process remains quite limited in Türkiye. Although existing studies generally address teachers’ attitudes toward refugees (Durmuş & Baş, 2016; Oktay et al., 2019; Tezcan, 2019; Yılmaz & Günay, 2022), teachers’ metaphorical perceptions of Syrian students have largely been overlooked. Therefore, examining teachers’ metaphorical frameworks offers a valuable line of inquiry that may shed light on refugee education policies and teacher education programs.
Purpose of the Research and Research Questions
This study aims to analyze Turkish language teachers’ metaphorical perceptions of Syrian refugees and to reveal how refugee students are subconsciously constructed within educational processes. Through the metaphors used by teachers, the study seeks to understand how they perceive their interactions with refugee students and their roles in the integration process.
In this context, the study seeks answers to the following questions:
Through which metaphors do Turkish language teachers define Syrian refugee students?
How do these metaphors reflect teachers’ perceptions of Syrian refugee students and of their own roles in the integration process?
It is expected that the findings will make important contributions to the development of teacher training programs and the formulation of policy recommendations aimed at the integration of refugee students into the education system.
Method
Research Design
This study was conducted using a basic qualitative research design aimed at making sense of participants’ perspectives on a particular phenomenon through analysis (Merriam, 2018). Because metaphors constitute the focal point of the research, a constructivist epistemology (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) was adopted. This approach assumes that individuals construct meaning through their experiences and that knowledge has a subjective and dynamic nature. Ontologically, the study adopts a relativist perspective, accepting that reality is socially constructed and context-dependent (Guba & Lincoln, 1994).
In the study, we aim to examine Turkish language instructors’ metaphors regarding Syrian refugees in order to reveal the evolution over time of the meanings attributed to these metaphors and their variability depending on experience. The study benefited from the metaphor analysis approach (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980), which is widely used in qualitative research to examine how metaphors reflect individuals’ cognitive and affective tendencies. Methodologically, metaphors rely on linguistic tools such as analogy and description and are among the most frequently used linguistic devices by participants to make sense of complex realities (Jensen, 2006). When handled from both objectivist and constructivist perspectives, metaphors carry an epistemic load and function as instruments of worldview. As reflections of educational activities and processes, metaphors offer the opportunity to access how the event or phenomenon under investigation is structured (Botha, 2009).
Participants
A total of 128 Turkish language instructors working within the scope of the Project for Supporting the Integration of Syrian Children into the Turkish Education System (PIKTES) participated in this study. Participants were determined through criterion sampling. In criterion sampling, individuals, situations, or events that meet certain pre-established criteria directly related to the research problem are included in the study. The aim is to obtain data from participants who can provide rich and meaningful information regarding the research topic (Patton, 2015). Accordingly, the participants were selected from among Turkish language instructors employed in PIKTES, the official and most comprehensive project carried out by the Ministry of National Education of the Republic of Türkiye to support the adaptation of Syrian children living in Türkiye to the education system, and who were selected and employed according to specific qualifications. Although the sample appears limited in terms of generalizability, it represents a purposeful and information-rich participant group because it includes individuals with experience central to the research problem.
The participant selection process took place as follows:
They were selected within the framework of a state-supported project in Türkiye aimed at educating refugee children.
They received special pedagogical training before starting their duties.
They participated in the study on a voluntary basis.
Table 1 presents the participants’ gender distribution and levels of professional experience.
Demographics Characteristics of Participants.
According to the data, only two instructors (1.56%) had prior experience in the education of Syrian refugees, whereas the remaining 126 instructors (98.44%) encountered refugee education for the first time within the scope of this project.
Data Collection Process
The data collection process was carried out in two stages:
Written Metaphor Production Stage
• Participants were asked a semi-structured question:
Syrian refugees are like … because … . • Participants produced one metaphor and justified it. • They were asked to complete the written forms within 30 min.
Follow-up Interviews
In order to gain a deeper understanding of the metaphors, short one-on-one interviews were conducted with some participants so that they could explain the metaphors they had produced. Within this scope, interviews were held with 15 randomly selected participants, and each interview lasted approximately 3 min. During the interviews, participants were asked to explain why they had chosen their metaphors, and all interviews were audio-recorded.
Participants were informed about the purpose, duration, and scope of the study; their right to withdraw from the interview at any time and how their data would be used were explained. Participation in the interviews was entirely voluntary, and care was taken to ensure that no physical or psychological harm was caused to participants.
The data obtained were used as a complementary data source in the metaphor analysis process and were integrated into the analytical process in a way that supported the interpretation and categorization of the metaphors. This approach was adopted in order to increase the trustworthiness of the data and to enable participants’ explanations regarding their metaphors to be evaluated more holistically.
In order not to direct the participants, the researchers explained the concept of metaphor only through neutral and academic definitions and refrained from imposing any particular perspective on the participants.
Data Analysis
In this study, content analysis was used to systematically examine participants’ metaphorical expressions (K. E. Berg & Latin, 2008; Creswell, 2013). The analysis process was carried out in four stages:
Coding and Sorting
• Each metaphor was coded and examined for clarity. • Nine responses that did not include a logical justification were excluded from the evaluation. • In cases of disagreement among coders, the meaning of the relevant metaphor was discussed in line with common criteria, and consensus was reached by also obtaining the opinion of a third independent expert.
Compilation of Metaphors
• A valid set of 128 metaphors was listed and coded as P1, P2, P3, and so forth. • A sample metaphor list was created to guide thematic classification.
Theme Development
• Ninety-nine different metaphors were evaluated in terms of shared characteristics. • Each theme was created on the basis of the data and by taking into account the common features of similar metaphors. • Ten main themes were formed.
Ensuring Reliability
The thematic classification was examined by two independent experts other than the researchers.
Inter-coder agreement was calculated using Miles and Huberman’s (1994) formula:
Reliability (%) = (Number of Agreements)/(Number of Agreements + Number of Disagreements) × 100
A reliability rate of 93% was obtained, exceeding the acceptable threshold of 80% (Miles & Huberman, 1994).
The researchers kept regular notes in order to recognize their own biases and conduct the coding process impartially, and they took independent expert evaluations into account.
Research Trustworthiness and Validity
Unlike the concepts of validity and reliability used in quantitative research, this study was evaluated according to trustworthiness criteria used in qualitative research (Lincoln & Guba, 1985):
Internal Validity Equivalent – Credibility
• Triangulation: cross-checking was performed by more than one researcher. • Participant confirmation: some participants confirmed whether the analyzed metaphors reflected their own views.
External Validity Equivalent – Transferability
• Thick description: detailed explanations were provided so that the results could be adapted to similar contexts.
Reliability Equivalent – Dependability
• Audit trail: the data collection and analysis process was documented step by step.
Researcher Positioning and Reflexivity
• The researchers took notes throughout the process, considering how their subjective viewpoints might affect the analysis.
Explanation of Terms Related to Metaphors
The distinctions among some metaphor-related terms used in the study are as follows:
Metaphor: a figurative expression produced by the participant.
Metaphor List: the list in which all metaphors are compiled.
Metaphor Features: the basic characteristics of each metaphor.
Metaphor Theme: the main idea or topic on which the metaphor is based.
Positive Metaphor: emphasizes the positive, constructive, empowering, or reassuring aspects of a concept or object. It shows that people attach positive feelings or values to that concept.
Negative Metaphor: emphasizes the negative, destructive, threatening, or anxiety-provoking aspects of a concept. It shows that people associate that concept with fear, anxiety, or negative experiences.
Neutral Metaphor: describes a concept in neither a positive nor a negative way; rather, it carries a more neutral, descriptive, or functional meaning. It does not reflect participants’ emotional load regarding the concept.
Explanation of the Number of Participants and Metaphors
In this study, 128 participants produced 128 different metaphors. Each participant produced only one metaphor; no participant produced multiple metaphors.
Findings
This section presents the metaphors produced by Turkish instructors regarding Syrian refugees and how these metaphors were classified on the basis of conceptual themes. As a result of the analysis conducted within the framework of Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) Conceptual Metaphor Theory, the metaphors produced by participants were divided into three main types of perception—negative, positive, and neutral—and were then examined under 10 different conceptual themes. In total, 99 different metaphors were identified, and these metaphors were coded as 128 usage instances reflecting participants’ perceptions (Table 2).
Distribution of Metaphors on Syrian Refugees.
General Distribution of Metaphors Regarding Syrian Refugees
Table 2 shows how metaphors regarding Syrian refugees were distributed across positive, negative, and neutral categories. The vast majority of metaphors (74.22%) were negative, while positive metaphors accounted for 19.53% and neutral metaphors for 6.25%.
As can be seen from the table, the overwhelming majority of participants (74.22%) tended to view refugees as homeless, displaced, defenseless, or as a threat to society. In contrast, 19.53% perceived refugees as valuable or potentially contributing members of society, while 6.25% used more neutral metaphors without taking a positive or negative stance.
The Process of Coding and Categorizing Metaphors
Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) Conceptual Metaphor Theory was taken as the basis for identifying the metaphors. According to this theory, individuals make sense of abstract concepts through metaphorical thinking. The coding process was carried out in three main stages:
Identification of Explicit Comparisons: explicit similes such as “A Syrian refugee is like a broken flower branch” were coded as metaphors, whereas directly descriptive expressions (e.g., “A Syrian refugee is a victim”) were excluded from the scope of metaphor.
Classification According to Conceptual Themes: metaphors were grouped according to the layers of meaning they conveyed and examined under each conceptual cluster (e.g., “guest”→“temporary,”“bird with a broken wing”→“damaged/vulnerable”).
Consistency and Reliability Check: during the coding process, two independent researchers examined the data set separately; afterward, the findings were compared and a common consensus was reached.
A metaphor’s inclusion in more than one category stems from the fact that participants used the same metaphor at different levels of meaning. For example, “young tree” was interpreted negatively by some participants in terms of “fragility,” whereas others evaluated it positively with emphasis on “growth and potential.”
Thematic Classification
In line with the meanings carried by the metaphors, perceptions regarding Syrian refugees were grouped under 10 different conceptual themes (Table 3). The theme “Homelessness / Disorder” (32.03%) emerged as the most emphasized theme, whereas “Spread / Proliferation” (1.56%) was the least represented.
Thematic Distribution of Metaphors Used by Turkish Teachers for Syrian Refugees.
In the following subsections, negative themes are discussed first, followed by positive and neutral themes, together with sample quotations.
Negative Perceptions Toward Syrian Refugees (74.22%)
Homelessness and Rootlessness (32.03%)
The most common perception theme was that refugees are rootless, temporary, and unstable individuals. Metaphors such as “guest,”“nomad,”“lost ship,”“orphan,” and “flower torn from its branch” reflect the idea that these individuals are constantly moving or living disconnected from their homeland.
“A Syrian refugee is like a guest because he/she is not permanent here; he/she is waiting to return.” (P.65) “A Syrian refugee is like a flower torn from its branch because he/she has been exiled from his/her homeland.” (P.20)
These findings are consistent with Erdoğan’s (2019) findings that refugees in Türkiye are viewed as “temporary guests.” From this perspective, refugees are not seen as permanent social members, and social integration processes are shaped accordingly.
Helplessness and Vulnerability (16.41%)
Another important group of perceptions among participants is the evaluation of refugees as vulnerable, needy, and disadvantaged individuals. This perception is embodied in metaphors such as “child,”“orphan,” and “young tree.”
“A Syrian refugee is like a child because he/she needs protection and care.” (P.14) “A Syrian refugee is like an orphan because he/she has lost home, family, and homeland.” (P.98)
Similarly, Dryden-Peterson (2017) emphasized that educators working with refugee students often define these individuals as “powerless victims” and that supportive attitudes toward them are linked to this approach.
Damaged and Powerless (14.85%)
This theme includes metaphors suggesting that refugees have been harmed because of the traumas created by war and migration conditions. Expressions such as “poor thing,”“bird with a broken wing,” and “a prisoner longing for freedom” emphasize that refugees are worn down both emotionally and physically.
“A Syrian refugee is like a bird with a broken wing because he/she has lost family and home and has come to a country he/she does not know.” (P.41) “A Syrian refugee is like a prisoner longing for freedom because he/she cannot return to his/her own country.” (P.92)
Parallel to Arendt’s (1951) observations on the phenomenon of “statelessness,” refugees are seen as having lost their political and social identities, which makes them more vulnerable and disadvantaged.
Uncertainty and Fear (7.03%)
Some participants defined refugees through metaphors such as “black box” or “bee,” and these definitions underline the uncertainty and anxiety felt toward refugees.
“A Syrian refugee is like a black box because we do not know what is inside.” (P.79)
Durmuş and Baş (2016) likewise stated that the feeling of uncertainty regarding refugee students may prevent teachers from developing a clear stance concerning classroom management and instructional strategies. Teachers’ inability to fully predict refugees’ needs and problem areas leads to anxiety and hesitation.
Seeing Refugees as Harmful (6.25%)
In this category, refugees were depicted as entities thought to negatively affect the country’s order and resources through metaphors such as “rotten tomato” or “parasite.”
“A Syrian refugee is like a rotten tomato because one spoiled fruit makes the others rot as well.” (P.5)
The studies of Esses et al. (2017) show that host communities often perceive refugees as an economic and cultural threat. This situation strengthens negative stereotypes about refugees.
Positive Perceptions Toward Syrian Refugees (19.53%)
Similarity and Inclusion (8.59%)
Some participants viewed refugees as an inseparable part of society and used metaphors such as “sibling,”“us,” and “mirror.” These metaphors reflect that refugees may be perceived not as “the other,” but as “one of us.”
“A Syrian refugee is like us because he/she is also a human being.” (P.6)
As suggested by Allport’s (1954) Contact Hypothesis, individuals who interact more with refugees may develop more positive and inclusive attitudes toward them.
Refugees as Valuable and Contributing Individuals (5.47%)
Under this theme, the idea comes to the fore that refugees are individuals who can make positive contributions to society and who are potentially open to growth and productivity. Metaphors such as “young tree,”“jewel,” and “book” express that, when the right environment and opportunities are provided, refugees can offer important gains to society.
“A Syrian refugee is like a young tree because if properly educated, it bears fruit.” (P.29)
This perception emphasizes that refugees are not only passive recipients, but also active subjects who can contribute economically, socially, and culturally to society.
Neutral Perceptions Toward Syrian Refugees (6.25%)
The metaphors in the neutral category, such as “guest,”“rain,”“scale,” and “plant,” do not carry a distinctly positive or negative meaning. These metaphors indicate the existence of an uncertain or neutral attitude toward refugees.
“A Syrian refugee is like a guest because his/her status here is unclear; maybe he/she will stay, maybe he/she will leave.” (P.11)
The fact that some instructors do not have a definite judgment about refugees may be related to the insufficiency of the interactions and experiences observed in educational settings. This also indicates that perceptions regarding refugees may change over time and with experience, in either a more positive or a more negative direction.
Discussion
This study examined Turkish language teachers’ metaphorical perceptions of Syrian refugees, and the findings revealed that the vast majority of teachers perceive refugee students as homeless, displaced, needy, or damaged individuals. A smaller number of teachers define refugees as individuals who can add value to society or who are open to integration.
Teachers’ perceptions of refugee students can be explained not only by individual attitudes but also by a broader social and political perspective. According to cognitive metaphor theory, which argues that language is a tool that structures thought (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980), metaphors are inseparable components of individuals’ processes of meaning-making and reality construction. People often make sense of everyday abstract concepts such as complex situations, change, cause-effect relations, and purpose—and, by extension, social phenomena—through metaphors (Lakoff, 1993). When some studies reflecting the social and political perspective toward Syrian refugees in Türkiye are examined (İnce, 2019; Kaypak & Bimay, 2016); Çorlu & Gülerce, 2021; Yılmaz & Günay, 2022), it is seen that a common public opinion has formed around the idea that refugees should be helped and that they are victimized and in need of compassion, and that a humanitarian aid policy has been adopted as both a moral and an international legal requirement. In this context, the expression of refugee students through metaphors such as “helpless,”“vulnerable,” or “in need of help” may be seen as a reflection of the political and social perspective in Türkiye.
The negative perceptions constructed in instructors’ worlds and expressed through metaphor may lead refugee students to be positioned as passive and dependent actors in educational settings. Even when such metaphors contain a well-intentioned protective approach, they may limit students’ positioning as subjects within the learning environment. Critical education theorist Freire (1998) emphasizes that power relations in educational settings directly affect the learning process and that a learner who is not positioned as a subject will be insufficient in constructing knowledge. Within this framework, perceptions that strengthen the teacher’s position of authority in the classroom and position the student as an object in need of support may produce a student profile with lower levels of well-being in affective terms (Dever & Karabenick, 2011; Huang et al., 2025; Peng & Huang, 2024). By contrast, metaphors such as “young tree” or “jewel” reflect a more inclusive and empowering pedagogical approach by emphasizing the student’s developmental potential.
The results obtained largely overlap with similar studies in the international literature. The fact that refugees are mostly perceived as “helpless,”“vulnerable,” and “in need of help” has also been frequently emphasized in previous studies (Dryden-Peterson, 2017; Esses et al., 2013). According to Allport’s (1954) Contact Hypothesis, individuals who do not interact directly with refugees tend to develop more negative perceptions. This may explain the fact that most teachers in our study had limited prior experience with refugee students. The high rate of negative metaphors shows that refugees are still perceived in Türkiye as temporary guests and that the integration process has not reached the desired level. Researchers such as Erdoğan (2019) and İçduygu and Diker (2017b) have emphasized that refugee policies in Türkiye focus on temporary protection rather than integration. In this regard, not only individual attitudes but also state policies and media discourses play a decisive role in shaping teachers’ perceptions (Esses & Hamilton, 2017). Indeed, studies focusing on perspectives toward Syrian refugees in the Turkish media (Bolgun & Uçan, 2020; Kardeş et al., 2017; Şen, 2017; B. Uzun & Tiryaki, 2025) have concluded that there is a negative perception rooted in seeing them as foreign/the other/temporary, and that negative news in the media causes society to hold prejudices against asylum seekers. In their study, Kachybekova and Pazarbaşı (2024) analyzed news produced in Türkiye about Syrian asylum seekers between 2011 and 2020 and found emphasis on frames such as victimization, settlement, responsibility, humanitarian concern, social security, and economic and political threat, together with the use of negative language.
Other studies on refugees’ educational processes also report similar results. For example, McBrien (2005) stated that the greatest barriers refugee students face in education are language barriers and social prejudice, while Roxas (2011) demonstrated that refugee students are met with lower expectations by teachers and that this negatively affects their academic success. Moreover, Taylor and Sidhu (2012) emphasize that the lack of emotional support in refugees’ educational processes complicates their integration and that teachers should be made more aware in this regard. Although teachers used positive metaphors less frequently, the fact that some teachers viewed refugee students through metaphors such as “young tree” and “jewel” as valuable and open to development is a hopeful sign that refugee students can succeed in the educational process. This finding is consistent with Miller and Windle’s (2010) findings that the integration process may proceed more healthily when refugee students’ access to education is increased. At the same time, Matthews (2008) showed that teachers’ development of positive attitudes toward refugee students makes a major contribution to students’ academic and psychosocial development.
Recommendations for Refugee Education Policies
The results of our study offer several suggestions for improving refugee education policies in Türkiye. First, official educational policies should be developed to encourage the perception of refugee students not as temporary guests but as individuals who add value to society. For example, collaboration models may be established among schools, non-governmental organizations, and the media in order to balance negative representations in the media that shape perceptions. In order to positively transform teachers’ perceptions of refugee students, comprehensive in-service training programs should be expanded. Awareness programs aimed at increasing inclusiveness in education may help teachers empathize with refugees and develop more supportive approaches toward them (Gay, 2010). In this direction, mentoring programs can be established under the guidance of teachers who have had positive experiences with refugee students in order to strengthen other teachers’ attitudes and perceptions. In addition, within the scope of projects such as PIKTES, teachers should be provided not only with pedagogical training but also with training in cultural sensitivity and psychosocial support. Considering the traumatic experiences refugee students have undergone, it is of great importance that teachers acquire psychological counseling skills in order to establish healthy relationships with these students (Matthews, 2008). Furthermore, supportive school environments should be created so that teachers can gain positive experiences with refugee students. As Allport (1954) noted, positive contact between different groups can weaken negative stereotypes. In this respect, social projects encouraging interaction with refugee students may help teachers understand refugee students better. In addition, Syrian refugee students’ success stories can be shared at classroom and school levels, and materials that challenge teachers’ negative stereotypes can be used.
Limitations of the Study and Suggestions for Future Research
This study was conducted with a specific group of teachers, and the generalization of the results to a broader teacher population should therefore be treated with caution. Future studies may comparatively examine teachers’ perceptions of refugee students in different geographical regions. In particular, identifying differences between the perceptions of teachers in rural and urban areas may contribute to shaping educational policies more effectively. In addition, in this study teachers’ perceptions were evaluated through metaphors, and no analysis was conducted regarding how refugee students perceive their teachers. In future research, obtaining refugee students’ views on their educational experiences and teacher–student relationships may provide a more comprehensive and holistic perspective. Finally, conducting longitudinal studies would also be important in order to observe how teachers’ perceptions change over time. By examining how teachers’ perceptions change as they gain more experience with refugees, more effective long-term strategies for the integration process can be developed. This study has revealed that Turkish language teachers’ metaphorical perceptions of Syrian refugees are largely negative, while also showing the existence of positive perceptions. Educational policies and teacher education programs need to be developed in ways that ensure greater support for refugee students in education. Changing teachers’ perceptions of refugees will directly affect not only individual attitudes but also refugees’ processes of integration into education and society. Therefore, the development of more inclusive and conscious policies for refugee education may positively transform the educational experiences of both teachers and refugee students.
Conclusion
This study shows that Turkish instructors’ metaphorical perceptions of Syrian refugees are largely negative. Of the metaphors used by participants, 74.22% represent refugees as homeless, vulnerable, in need of social support, or as a source of threat; positive metaphors accounted for only 19.53%, and neutral metaphors were limited to 6.25%. At the thematic level, the themes of “Homelessness/Disorder,”“Alone and in Need of Help,” and “Damaged/Victimized” were dominant, indicating that refugees are mostly perceived as vulnerable and victimized individuals. This suggests that empathy and helping orientations may come to the fore in educational settings with regard to refugees, but that a perspective based on social integration and equality remains limited. In contrast, the themes of “Valuable/Useful” and “Similar and Equal” reflect, albeit to a limited extent, positive perceptions within a framework of empathy and shared human values. During the coding process, the fact that metaphors could carry multidimensional meanings demonstrates that perceptions are shaped by both individual and socio-cultural contexts. These findings highlight the importance of recognizing the negative dimensions of social perceptions toward refugees and of strengthening inclusive, empathy-based approaches among educators and policy makers.
Footnotes
Ethical Considerations
Due to ethical considerations and confidentiality agreements, certain data may be restricted to protect participant anonymity.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Data Availability Statement
The data supporting the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request*.