The Gender,Religion and Prosocial Behaviors of University Students on a Service-Learning Experience on the Border Between Africa and Europe

Abstract

Service-Learning (SL) provides real practical experiences that include responding to real-life problems for students and socially disadvantaged groups. This study examined prosocial behaviors in relation to the sociodemographic characteristics (gender and religion) of teacher training students (TTS) and sports science students (SSS). A total of 108 undergraduate students (aged 22.13 ± 1.38 years) participated in this research. The Prosocial and Civic Competences questionnaire, which has six dimensions, was the instrument used to determine the students’ prosocial behaviors. The sociodemographic characteristics of the students considered were gender (female and male) and religion (Islamic, Catholic and non-practicing). Statistical analyses were carried out using the multivariate analysis of variance procedure. Most of the prosocial and civic competences dimensions were significant for gender and religion (both p < .05). The interaction between prosocial and civic competences and religion of female students showed a relationship with the prosocial and civic competences dimension of Social responsibility (p < .001). On the other hand, male students and the prosocial and civic competences dimensions showed interactions in Compliance with social norms, Social sensitivity (both, p < .001), Help and collaboration, Security and firmness in interaction, Prosocial leadership and Social responsibility (all, p < .01). During the SL experience with groups of migrant minors, the prosocial and civic competences dimensions were consolidated in the participants and the effects of gender and religion were confirmed.

Plain Language Summary

Social Characteristics of University Students in a Multicultural Context

Plain language summary Service-learning (SL) is a method for combining learning with social engagement. It’s learning by performing community service. This study examined the prosocial behaviours in relation to the sociodemographic characteristics (gender and religion) of teacher training students (TTS) and sports science students (SSS). The sociodemographic characteristics of the students considered were gender (female and male) and religion (Islamic, Catholic and non-practitioners). This study aims to contribute to the existing literature in this regard.

Keywords

civic behavior active methodology migrant group social inclusion multicultural context

Introduction

Nowadays, higher education is expected to prepare students not only for professional demands, but also to become engaged citizens capable of responding to complex social challenges (Núñez & Rojas, 2003). Within this framework, university Service-Learning (SL) has emerged as an effective pedagogical approach to integrate academic learning with social relevance (Maravé-Vivas et al., 2022; Schoenherr, 2015). SL connects students with real-life problems, fostering reflection and action in their interaction with disadvantaged groups (Neal et al., 2017). This academic perspective, particularly in teacher training students (TTS) and sports science students (SSS), has been demonstrated to influence student sensitivity and awareness of social justice, with an impact ranging from local to global (Gil-Gómez et al., 2016). The research shows that exposure to real-world problems through SL experiences enhances their social and civic awareness (Choi et al., 2023), boosting problem-solving capacities and critical thinking. Furthermore, contact with diverse community members fosters empathy and intercultural understanding (Ruiz-Montero et al., 2023), allowing students to apply skills in real contexts and understand their role as agents of change (Choi et al., 2023). A study by Gil-Gómez et al. (2013) highlighted SL’s influence on students’ ethical civic training, specifically in prosocial behaviors and civic competences, which are linked to developing moral judgment through diverse social situations. Blanch et al. (2020) emphasize how such experiences cultivate broader personal and prosocial behaviors by confronting students with real problems that require a commitment to change. It is therefore fundamental to examine prosocial behaviors in relation to the sociodemographic characteristics of TTS/SSS within multicultural contexts like Melilla. This relationship helps us understand the participants’ motivation, social involvement and goals based on their traditions, context and daily life (Compare & Albanesi, 2023; Jiang et al., 2022; Maravé-Vivas et al., 2022; Ruiz-Montero et al., 2022). Challenges like language barriers, academic development and cross-cultural learning inherent to multicultural settings influence SL participants professionally and personally (Chambers & Lavery, 2022). An increased level of interaction between participants and users contributes to the reliability of the information exchanged, thereby enhancing the perceived value and impact of the socio-educational experience (Pang & Ruan, 2024). Additionally, students’ cultural backgrounds and experiences foster cultural understanding, which in turn can aid their prosocial behaviors and civic competences (Daum et al., 2022; Peralta et al., 2021).

Scientific evidence shows that SL can be a powerful tool for forming informed, engaged and active citizens, contributing to stronger communities (DeMarais et al., 2022; Jones & Kiser, 2014), which are particularly lacking in border cities and diverse multicultural contexts like Melilla, situated between Africa and Europe (Compare & Albanesi, 2023; Gil-Gómez et al., 2016; Ruiz-Montero et al., 2023). In such settings, SL is especially valuable for professional training. Studies have indicated that the cultural or religious diversity of the recipient group in an SL experience decisively influences students’ prosocial behaviors, owing to personal interactions and empathy developed (Blanch et al., 2020). These learning environments promote social understanding and empathy toward diverse groups (Compare & Albanesi, 2023), enhancing the interpersonal skills of TTS/SSS (Lleixà & Nieva, 2018) and producing long-term functional and psychosocial benefits that predict university students’ cumulative satisfaction (Pang & Wang, 2025).

The relationships between prosocial behaviors and religious beliefs are complex and diverse, often depending on personal interpretation and practice (Cortés-Amador et al., 2018; González Ortiz et al., 2022). While various ethical frameworks in religion can influence civic behavior (Matusovich et al., 2013), several religious principles promote values like justice, social responsibility and service to others (Matusovich et al., 2013; Vergés Bosch et al., 2021). These tenets can be a determining factor for participation in SL activities and can foster tolerance and respect for diversity in pluralistic societies (Palpacuer-Lee & Curtis, 2017). In addition to all this, there is the reasoned action approach (RAA) theory proposed by Fishbein and Ajzen (2010). This framework explains that an individual’s behavioral intention is the most proximal determinant of their actual behavior, which is itself predicted by attitudes, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control (Oduro-Appiah et al., 2024). Beliefs and attitudes shaped by religious views and perceptions significantly influence subjective norms regarding acceptable societal behavior, which is later molded into behavioral intentions (Fitranita et al., 2023).

On the other hand, several studies show tensions between certain religious beliefs and civic engagement (Vergés Bosch et al., 2021), particularly in highly diverse religious contexts (Palpacuer-Lee & Curtis, 2017), as religious principles can lead to various interpretations of equality and diversity (González Ortiz et al., 2022). In line with the above, Saroglou’s (2006) theoretical model on personality and religion is noteworthy, highlighting that religiosity can predict prosocial behavior but that there are limitations such as in-group favoritism or the social desire to appear to society as a good person. In addition, this author indicates that religion, as part of culture, provides mechanisms that control the natural destructiveness of humans caused by their narcissism and impulses (Freud, 1961 in Chapman, 2007).

Nonetheless, connections can also be drawn between personal experiences, religious beliefs and community interaction that influence prosocial behaviors and civic competences (Duarte Nares, 2022). DeMarais et al. (2022) observed the influence of religion and gender on university students’ social skills acquisition, suggesting that mutual reflection and respect in diverse contexts promote transformative learning.

Concerning the role of gender in service provision and its association with religion, women often show a greater inclination to engage in community activities than men, particularly when religious beliefs emphasize compassion and service to others (Schoenherr, 2015; Vergés Bosch et al., 2021). Women also tend to be more supportive of participation in community networks linked to their religious beliefs (Iturbide & Santana Valencia, 2023). This fact coincides with the study by Kaneez and Imtiaz (2022) about young people’s gender and prosocial behaviors, which is based on Batson and Ventis’s concept of Quest religious orientation through the prism of self-determination theory (Neyrinck et al., 2010; Vansteenkiste et al., 2008) and the importance of prosocial behaviors for studying individual differences, interpersonal relationships and citizens’ interactions (Batson & Powell, 2003). Religious beliefs and values such as compassion and humility are intrinsic religious orientation, while safety and sociability are extrinsic religious orientation with a utilitarian focus, both of which are major elements of the self-determination theory (Neyrinck et al., 2010). Furthermore, some religions highlight social justice and equity, which can motivate women to improve quality of life for the socially disadvantaged (Baeza Correa, 2022), and personal development, fostering greater community engagement (Sarrazín & Mira-Sarmiento, 2023). Studies indicate that personal interpretation of religious beliefs may be a determining factor in social engagement, which may vary by gender (Watts, 2018).

This directly relates to recent studies confirming women’s greater involvement in SL experiences (Choi et al., 2023; Lleixà & Nieva, 2018). While this does not imply greater awareness among female students (González Ortiz et al., 2022), they are often drawn to SL due to a desire to contribute positively to society and gain personal and professional satisfaction from interacting with socially disadvantaged groups (Cortés-Amador et al., 2018; Relaño-Pastor, 2021; Salgado, 2014). However, in-depth analyses of university students’ perceptions in SL experiences regarding the acquisition of prosocial behaviors and how these relate to gender and religious practice remain scarce. Despite the existing literature noting gender and religious differences, a comprehensive examination is needed.

Therefore, the objective of this study was to examine the link between the prosocial behaviors (dimensions of the Prosocial and Civic Competences questionnaire) that university students have reported and their gender and religion during an SL experience with a migrant group. In line with this perspective, a set of research questions has been formulated to define and clarify the core framework of this study. These questions propose that (1) an SL experience fosters the development of prosocial behaviors and civic competences among university students engaged in a multicultural context involving a migrant group, (2) gender and religious affiliation exert an influence on the prosocial behaviors (dimensions of the Prosocial and Civic Competences questionnaire) of university students throughout an SL experience, and (3) participation in an SL experience helps enhance critical thinking and contributes to intercultural awareness among university students in sensitive contexts such as the border between Africa and Europe.

Material and Methods

Research Methodology

The present study employed a one-group, quasi-experimental, cross-sectional design with a sample of university students, conducted once the SL experience had concluded. The participants represented two distinct academic profiles within the same Faculty of Education and Sport Sciences at the Melilla campus, University of Granada, Spain: teacher training students (TTS) and sports science students (SSS). The main study variables included gender and religion as sociodemographic characteristics, and prosocial behaviors, assessed through six dimensions detailed in the “Instruments” section.

For the research, authorization was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the University of Granada (Spain) to carry out a project involving non-adult and adult human participants (Code_3212/CEIH/2023). Within this framework, written informed consent was obtained from the university students, in addition to the agreement of the collaborating institution where the unaccompanied foreign minors resided. Similarly, the residential care center housing the unaccompanied foreign minors authorized the use of its facilities to implement the SL intervention in an environment that was familiar and comfortable for the participating minors.

Participants

A total of 108 university students with ages ranging from 20 to 25 years (22.13 ± 1.38 years) participated in this study. Sixty female and 48 male TTS/SSS from the Faculty of Education and Sports Sciences of the Melilla Campus, were involved in this research.

In terms of religious affiliation, 62 students were Catholic, 19 students practiced Islam and 27 were non-practicing. All the students were Spanish, but 19 of them had relatives of Moroccan origin. Finally, it is worth noting that 32 of the TTS/SSS were local to Melilla, while the remainder were from elsewhere in Spain. When collecting information about gender, the participants were offered the option of selecting ‘other’ if they did not identify as either male or female, but none of them selected this option.

Lecturers who were keen to help in vulnerable contexts were recruited for this project, and the vulnerable group chosen was migrants. For this study, the selected unit was part of the fifth-year curriculum of the aforementioned degree program. The main components of this unit were evaluation instruments, sport performance teaching and rhythmic and social games.

Instruments

The present study employed two self-administered questionnaires to gather sociodemographic information and assess the participants’ civic competences.

Sociodemographic Characteristics

Sociodemographic data were collected using a self-reported questionnaire, which included age, citizenship, citizenship of their family, school year (fifth and sixth academic year), gender (female and male) and religion (Islamic, Catholic and non-practicing).

Prosocial and Civic Competences

The Prosocial and Civic Competences questionnaire by Gil-Gómez et al. (2013) was employed to analyze how the SL experience promotes prosocial behaviors among university students. Thus, it was considered an optimal instrument for this research. The Prosocial and Civic Competences questionnaire comprises 31 items spanning six dimensions: Compliance with social norms (three items); Social sensitivity (six items); Help and collaboration (four items); Security and firmness in interaction (eight items); Prosocial leadership (four items); and Social responsibility (six items). The participants rated the items on a Likert-like scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The questionnaire exhibited excellent psychometric characteristics, achieving a high reliability index with a Cronbach’s Alpha of α = .84. Furthermore, the internal consistency across the various dimensions was deemed satisfactory, demonstrating a solid reliability index ranging from .77 to .86.

The Prosocial and Civic Competences questionnaire was digitized and distributed to the teaching staff overseeing the educational programs, who then administered it to the enrolled students. The questionnaire was administered 2 weeks after the SL experience ended, following the final evaluation.

SL Experience

The SL experience focused on two main groups of migrants: unaccompanied foreign minors and at-risk adolescents/young migrants. The majority of the unaccompanied foreign minors originated from Moroccan border regions and faced challenging daily lives marked by challenging experiences leading to significant physical and emotional distress. Additionally, young individuals from sub-Saharan African countries (primarily from Mauritania, Mali and Senegal) and Morocco were also involved. All these migrants were under the care of public institutions or social entities in Melilla, recognized for their humanitarian efforts, social dedication and resources to support vulnerable groups.

Melilla is a Spanish Autonomous City on the north coast of the African continent that is surrounded by the waters and territory of Morocco. The distinctive feature that makes Melilla worthy of study is its geographic location, fostering a unique cultural and social landscape within an area of 13.5 km² and approximately 86,000 inhabitants. Thus, it has a unique society and context characterized by multicultural values and the migrant phenomenon. Muslim and Christian cultures and religions coexist harmoniously, constituting the predominant religious beliefs, each accounting for 49% of the population. The rest of the population, approximately 2%, include Hebrew, Hindu and Romani cultures (Chiva-Bartoll et al., 2021).

Procedure

The SL experience with TTS/SSS aimed to promote social inclusion through intercultural exchange and physical activity among socially excluded migrants. Likewise, the SL experience involving migrants aimed to eliminate the obstacles and disparities that this group experiences in their everyday lives. Education on diversity and inclusion should serve as a cornerstone in the education system and, consequently, in the preparation of future primary school and sport science teachers (Tinkler et al., 2017).

The university participants were briefed about the study’s primary objectives and they provided informed consent to participate in The INCLUSO Project (Hooli et al., 2025). Adherence to the guidelines outlined by the American Psychological Association was ensured for all the participating students, and their responses were kept anonymous. After the SL experience, the responses were gathered and saved in a database, and further analysis was conducted using SPSS 27 software.

This experience comprised six 45-min sessions conducted over one semester. The SL program was divided into working groups comprising three to five members. As mentioned above, two social institutions collaborated in providing the service to migrants. Prior to the SL experience, the TTS/SSS, with the guidance of the teaching staff, designed the SL activities during in-class sessions.

The SL experience for TTS/SSS utilized distinct approaches that shared a common objective: addressing the needs of socially excluded groups through the engagement of university students. The activities conducted encompassed social and sports events, recreational workshops, movement-based game sessions for minors, physical exercises and leisure sessions.

Statistical Analysis

Prior to conducting the MANOVA, the assessment of normality was conducted using tests of covariance matrix equality (Levene’s test) and the verification of collinearity assumptions (correlation matrix, variance inflation factor I [VIF] and eigenvalues). The analysis revealed the absence of multicollinearity, as indicated by the moderate to low correlation coefficients within the coefficient matrix (ranging from −0.31 to 0.75). The VIF values were over 1 but below commonly recognized thresholds for concern, and the eigenvalues met the appropriate criteria, with all values being between 0.40 and 2.87. These results aligned with recommendations from the scientific literature (González Ortiz et al., 2022), confirming the absence of collinearity. Furthermore, the homogeneity of variances for the dependent variables was assessed using Levene’s test. Finally, Box’s M test was used to observe the equality of covariance matrices (χ² = 145.60; p = .001). All the analyses were executed using the SPSS 27 statistical package for social sciences (IBM SPSS for MAC, Armonk, NY), except Cohen’s d and eta squared (η²; Table 1), which were performed using a computation of effect sizes program (Lenhard & Lenhard, 2022). The magnitude of the effect size is interpreted as small (0.2 < d < 0.5), medium (0.5 < d < 0.8) and large (d ≥ 0.8; Cohen, 1992).

Table 1.

Differences for Each Dimension of the Prosocial and Civic Competences Questionnaire According to the Gender and Religion of the Students Involved in the SL Experience.

		Gender					Religion
PCC dimensions		Mean (SD)	F	Cohen’s d *		Mean (SD)	F	Eta squared^a
Compliance with social norms	F	4.68 ± 0.30	7.08**	0.136	NP	4.46 ± 0.05	7.73***	.128
	M	4.73 ± 0.42			I	4.82 ± 0.04
					C	4.75 ± 0.06
Social sensitivity	F	4.41 ± 0.49	8.42**	0.092	NP	4.39 ± 0.06	9.02***	.147
	M	4.45 ± 0.37			I	4.45 ± 0.05
					C	4.79 ± 0.07
Help and collaboration	F	4.25 ± 0.48	7.92**	0.054	NP	4.26 ± 0.08	7.76***	.129
	M	4.28 ± 0.61			I	4.29 ± 0.06
					C	4.68 ± 0.09
Security and firmness in interaction	F	3.83 ± 0.62	3.13	0.337	NP	3.83 ± 0.08	3.33*	.060
	M	4.01 ± 0.43			I	4.10 ± 0.06
					C	4.08 ± 0.09
Prosocial leadership	F	3.95 ± 0.68	5.42*	0.660	NP	3.71 ± 0.08	2.49	.045
	M	3.55 ± 0.52			I	3.89 ± 0.06
					C	4.05 ± 0.11
Social responsibility	F	3.48 ± 0.28	0.250	0.417	NP	3.31 ± 0.05	12.21***	.189
	M	3.35 ± 0.34			I	3.59 ± 0.03
					C	3.25 ± 0.06

Note. PCC = prosocial and civic competences; F = female; M = male; NP = non-practicing; I = Islamic; C = Catholic; SD = standard deviation.

The magnitude of the effect size by Cohen’s d and eta squared is interpreted as small (0.2 < d < 0.5), medium (0.5 < d < 0.8) and large (d ≥ 0.8; Cohen, 1992).

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Results

Table 1 summarizes the main effects according to the participants’ gender and the prosocial and civic competences dimensions, while Tables 2 and 3 show the main effects of the interaction of the prosocial and civic competences dimensions with religion depending on whether the participants are female or male, respectively.

Table 2.

ANOVA for Each Dimension of the Prosocial and Civic Competences Questionnaire as a Function of the Interaction With the Religion of the Female Students involved in this Study.

PCC dimensions	Religion
PCC dimensions	F	df	$η_{p}^{2}$ ^a
Compliance with social norms	0.074	2.60	.003
Social sensitivity	1.648	2.60	.055
Help and collaboration	1.560	2.60	.052
Security and firmness in interaction	0.443	2.60	.015
Prosocial leadership	1.097	2.60	.037
Social responsibility	9.260***	2.60	.245

Note. PCC = prosocial and civic competences; df = degrees of freedom; $η_{p}^{2}$ = partial eta squared.

The magnitude of the effect size by partial eta squared is interpreted as small (0.2 < d < 0.5), medium (0.5 < d < 0.8) and large (d ≥ 0.8; Cohen, 1992).

***

p < .001.

Table 3.

ANOVA for Each Dimension of the Prosocial and Civic Competences Questionnaire as a Function of the Interaction with the Religion of the Male Students Involved in This Study.

PCC dimensions	Religion
PCC dimensions	F	df	$η_{p}^{2}$ ^a
Compliance with social norms	22.580***	2.48	.501
Social sensitivity	15.115***	2.48	.402
Help and collaboration	6.895**	2.48	.235
Security and firmness in interaction	6.960**	2.48	.236
Prosocial leadership	5.992**	2.48	.210
Social responsibility	5.284**	2.48	.190

Note. PCC = prosocial and civic competences; df = degrees of freedom; $η_{p}^{2}$ = partial eta squared.

The magnitude of the effect size by partial eta squared is interpreted as small (0.2 < d < 0.5), medium (0.5 < d < 0.8) and large (d ≥ 0.8; Cohen, 1992).

p < .01. ***p < .001.

Significant statistical variations were observed in relation to gender concerning the dimensions of the prosocial and civic competences questionnaire, as indicated by the primary outcomes of the analyzed factors (Table 1). The Cohen’s d values for gender in relation to the Compliance with social norms, Social sensitivity, Help and collaboration (p < .01) and Prosocial leadership (p < .05) dimensions were 13.6%, 9.2%, 5.4% and 66%, respectively; the differences between the second and third dimensions were small because the explained variance was close to zero. The mean results of the prosocial and civic competences dimensions were compared between the three religions (non-practicing, Islamic and Catholic) and significant differences were identified for all dimensions (p < .001), including Security and firmness in interaction (p < .05), with the exception of Prosocial leadership (no significance).

Regarding the interactions between the dimensions of the Prosocial and Civic Competences questionnaire with religion for the female students involved in this study, a significant effect is shown on Social responsibility (p < .001), which explained 24.5% of the variance (Table 2). On the other hand, the interactions between the dimensions of the Prosocial and Civic Competences questionnaire with religion for male students (Table 3) show significant effects on all the prosocial and civic competences dimensions, with p < .001 for Compliance with social norms and p < .01 for Help and collaboration, Security and firmness in interaction, Prosocial leadership and Social responsibility.

Discussion

This study examined the link between prosocial behaviors, specifically the prosocial and civic competences dimensions, reported by TTS and SSS during an SL experience with a migrant group, considering their gender and religious practices. The data analysis revealed the impact of the SL experience on the prosocial and civic competences dimensions of the participating students, with differences observed as a function of gender and religious practice. Regarding conformity to social correctness, male students tended to demonstrate higher scores for Compliance with social norms, though with differences based on religious observance. Research involving culturally or religiously diverse groups in SL experiences indicates that university students are likely to foster respect and dispel adverse stereotypes (Ruiz-Montero et al., 2023).

The SL experience with migrants reports effects on the prosocial behaviors of TTS/SSS, such as empathy, cooperation, humility, altruism and the development of social skills that aid personal autonomy (Sales & Monfort, 2019). These competences are associated with critical actions in vulnerable social contexts or with non-profit organizations, leading to personal satisfaction (Kroll & Vogel, 2014). These findings underscore the importance of this study, as SL research examining interactions between multi-faith university participants and migrant groups and its impact on prosocial competencies remains a significant group. Furthermore, this study suggests that prospective teachers must manage psychological, emotional, cognitive and social distinctions within SL lessons (Kim & Yoon-Kyoung, 2015), particularly given the multicultural and educational nature of contents and activities involving migrant children (Coyle et al., 2021; Hooli et al., 2023).

In this research, female Muslim students may have shown greater empathy and social responsibility toward the migrant group due to their similar geographical location, language or culture. This could relate to a greater interest in SL shown by female students, as identified by Matusovich et al. (2013), where female university students chose this methodology to help society and gain personal satisfaction. Moreover, the Muslim students in the program live daily in a multicultural context, are often bilingual and hold dual nationality (Moroccan and Spanish). This background likely enhances their understanding of migrants’ problems and concerns (Coyle et al., 2021; Hooli et al., 2023).

The unique geographic and cultural context of Melilla has played an important role in shaping the social sensitivity of TTS/SSS, echoing the findings of Bruce (2015). This author highlights the need to reframe the ethical responsibility of SL participants toward recipient groups to prevent uncivilized behaviors like racism or prejudice. However, the students in this study live daily alongside diverse ethnic and religious groups in this multicultural city in North Africa. This constant interaction suggests they may more readily adhere to social norms, collaborate in daily life to assist people from different countries of origin and religions and mobilize against injustice. Therefore, the interaction between the prosocial and civic competences dimensions and religion in TTS/SSS through the SL experience could be supported not only by their daily lives outside their academic experiences, but also by their direct encounters with migrants of different religions and cultures during the SL experience.

The university students participating in this study engage in practical experiences with different communities and academic contexts and have the ability to work with disadvantaged groups during their studies (McInerney et al., 2000; Pérez-Pueyo et al., 2019). An improvement in inclusive interaction and their capacity for group work can be observed as the students spend time and work with migrants during SL programs (Compare & Albanesi, 2023). The same authors conducted an SL intervention in a non-governmental organization focused on migrant children and adolescents, concluding that service with migrants allowed the participating students to assume a higher transformative role and social sensitivity by acquiring prosocial behaviors in contexts of cultural diversity and social justice. Universities should acknowledge the importance that students attach to community problems and their capacity to advocate for and solve them. University education’s role is to develop people who are capable of defending other people’s rights through effective dialogue and self-correction (Ammons & Edgell, 2007). At this point, SL is presented as an effective tool to foster the civic engagement of university students, thereby involving them in the social context in which they live (Daum et al., 2022), especially in multicultural cross-border areas (Chiva-Bartoll et al., 2021).

In recent years, students have demanded a more critical and socially oriented university education (Walton-Fisette & Sutherland, 2018), exemplified by the increase of Muslim students in physical education teacher education to enhance understanding and inclusion of minority Muslim students in Primary and Secondary education (Benn & Dagkas, 2006). SL experiences enable future primary and physical education teachers to develop greater social responsibility and to be assertive in preventing social injustice toward disadvantaged groups (Kyungbin & Seohyun, 2018; Ruiz-Montero et al., 2023). These studies are a clear example of the connection between the usefulness of Service-Learning and the civic engagement of university students, as a socio-educational experience with disadvantaged groups allows for a deeper understanding of the complex realities of various problems or causes (Ruiz-Montero et al., 2023). In this study, Catholic, Muslim and non-practicing male students showed confidence and assertiveness in community interaction. This may stem from intergenerational transmission of attitudes and behaviors within family interactions (Gauly, 2017) and religious habits that can be particularly strong among men due to traditional masculine viewpoints in Islam and Catholicism (Fedele, 2013; Van Osselaer, 2012). Religion shapes intergenerational influence by providing ethical frameworks that influence perceptions of gender roles and family structures (Guetto et al., 2015; McInerney et al., 2000). Social support from active participation and dialogue within religious communities could offer practical support to disadvantaged groups, fostering social justice. Conversely, non-practicing university students in this study may also have family and social influences that foster engagement in contextual concerns that are relevant to their demographic and geographic conditions (Feldmann, 2007; McInerney et al., 2000).

In terms of prosocial leadership, the male participants showed higher satisfaction than the female participants in engaging in novel activities with migrants during the SL experience. This aligns with the study by Ruiz-Montero et al. (2023), where a small group of male university students in a similar multicultural context felt more motivated and willing to work with people of different religious and social identities than female participants. According to these authors, the ability to relate to migrants as human beings with diverse identities reinforced the male students’ sense of security and assertiveness. Prosocial behaviors involving any social mobilization between two parties should facilitate a positive transfer of educational content between university students and the receiving community (Wright & Christensen, 2010). The students involved in this study showed prosocial leadership and the ability to mobilize others, enhanced by direct contact with their immediate social reality.

The social and academic context can be harmful to university students if it is highly structured, especially for female students (Marczuk & Strauss, 2023), due to expected achievement norms, academic self-efficacy and perceived psychological burdens. This might explain why the male students in our study felt more secure and firm in their interaction with the migrants and exhibited more prosocial leadership than female students. However, the longitudinal study by Marczuk and Strauss (2023) found that practical experience reduces pressures of academic performance for both genders, helping to manage stress and increase coping ability. Thus, real-world experiences outside the lecture room, like SL or behavioral interventions, are highly effective in lessening students’ anxiety (Compare & Albanesi, 2023; Regehr et al., 2013), while simultaneously encouraging involvement in situations of respect and solidarity with multicultural groups.

Prosocial behaviors through the prosocial and civic competences dimensions include personal behaviors that acknowledge social problems and enhance individual responsibility. The ability to freely undertake social obligations and contribute positively to a community project is known as social responsibility (Gil-Gómez et al., 2016). Female practicing and non-practicing students in this study showed greater social responsibility, while male practicing and non-practicing students showed an absence of social responsibility. Previous research confirms that TTS/SSS establish a strong foundation in pedagogical values when using physical activities or multicultural dynamics for socialization during SL experiences involving marginalized communities (Gil-Gómez et al., 2013; Marttinen et al., 2020; Ruiz-Montero et al., 2023), particularly among female students in multicultural cross-border areas (Corral-Robles et al., 2022; Hooli et al., 2023). Female students practicing most religions often tend to be more charitable and sympathetic to disadvantaged groups (Flere, 2007; Hooli et al., 2023; Stranges, 2022). According to Miller and Stark (2002), this may be attributed to women’s greater engagement in religious practices compared to men; consequently, they tend to internalize more the charitable values promoted by most religions.

In this research, the female students experienced a high level of social responsibility by working in real situations and reaching out to vulnerable groups through the social participation required during the SL experience. This justifies one of the multiple interactions between gender, religion practiced and prosocial competence observed in this study.

According to Matusovich et al. (2013), the geographic and cultural context, specific characteristics of the degree program or the participants engaged in SL experiences may influence the results. Within students’ social responsibility, empathy toward others is notable, rooted in active engagement and willingness to connect with marginalized groups (Maravé-Vivas et al., 2023), whether for social (Ruiz-Montero et al., 2023) or religious reasons (Gil-Gómez et al., 2016; Ruiz-Montero et al., 2023). In our study, the university students perceived that by participating in SL, acceptance toward others and adherence to coexistence rules had a considerable effect on their social development.

However, stable prosocial leadership was evident among female students across all religious practices.

Women who practice a religion often demonstrate a high level of prosocial leadership, sometimes even surpassing that of practicing men (Cuadra-Martínez et al., 2023). This phenomenon may stem from the empowerment of women through their faith; despite many religions having patriarchal structures, practicing women have historically found avenues for leadership by directing their religious focus toward assisting disadvantaged social contexts (Zacharoff, 2020). Furthermore, Gruber (2020) emphasizes the leadership developed by women within various religious communities, arguing that the challenges they face in actively participating in religious dialogue contribute to their strength and heightened awareness regarding the need for social and civic leadership. On the other hand, the studies by An (2021) and Hooli et al. (2023) on SL with vulnerable groups suggested that motivating and leading others in social tasks improves the learning of male and female TTS/SSS with no previous SL experience. Another study explored the social reflection SL provoked in students, especially among women (Leary & Sherlock, 2020). Kirkgoz’s (2019) work revealed the effects of an SL experience on students’ and participants’ satisfaction during new and motivating activities. Furthermore, Hooli et al. (2023) confirmed that the right prosocial leadership of students involved in an SL intervention helped to suggest and provide effective responses to the social problems of disadvantaged groups, especially among women.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this research suggests that SL is related to the consolidation of prosocial behaviors in TTS/SSS, specifically among male participants. The results also help us understand the role that gender and religion play in university students’ experiences with SL and their acquisition of prosocial behaviors and civic competences. To the best of our knowledge, upon reviewing the existing literature, no prior research has conducted a comparable analysis or examined the same prosocial and civic competences dimensions and variables as those investigated in this study. This highlights the need to endorse SL as a pedagogical tool that promotes respect among students in multicultural contexts.

The prosocial and civic competences dimensions most strongly related to the gender and religion of TTS/SSS are Compliance with social norms, Social sensitivity, Help and collaboration, Security and firmness in interaction and Social responsibilities. This underscores the wide variety of prosocial behaviors and civic competences that TTS/SSS develop when engaging in SL experiences with migrant populations.

Limitations and Future Directions

Nonetheless, these findings should be approached with caution due to several limitations. This study follows a cross-sectional design, preventing us from establishing definitive causal relationships between observed differences and factors like gender or religious practice. Future longitudinal studies are needed to explore the development of prosocial behaviors over time and to determine causality.

Furthermore, our reliance on self-report measures for assessing prosocial behaviors inherently introduces a potential for social desirability bias. Participants might report behaviors they perceive as favorable rather than their actual actions. Future research could enhance the validity of the findings by incorporating multiple assessment methods, such as observational data, peer evaluations or objective behavioral tasks, in addition to self-report measures.

The generalization of our findings is also limited by the specific context of this study. It focused solely on an SL experience carried out with a single vulnerable group of migrants in a particular setting (Melilla). The unique cultural and geographic context of the participating students may also influence the results, making direct comparisons to other settings a challenge. Therefore, we speculate that working with a broader range of vulnerable groups or conducting studies in diverse cultural contexts could yield different or more varied results, potentially showing a higher social impact on participants. In addition, the demographic composition of our study, where 17.5% of the participating students practiced Islam and most of the migrants in the recipient group were also Muslims, might have influenced certain outcomes. Subsequent research endeavors should tackle these aspects by replicating this study in different geographic locations, with varied recipient groups and across a wider spectrum of student demographic profiles and religious backgrounds. This would help validate and strengthen the outcomes presented here and enhance their broader applicability.

Finally, there may be possible harm to the university participants, such as (a) an emotional overload because of the exposure to the difficult life stories of migrant minors, (b) role confusion, so that a charitable or superiority-based approach may develop that reinforces stereotypes rather than fostering equality and mutual learning and, (c) academic burnout if the SL intervention involves high demands in terms of emotional investment and time in a difficult context with a very vulnerable group. However, the design of the present study has tried to limit the risk of harm to the university participants through (a) previous preparation with a clear definition of the students’ role and exhaustive knowledge of the migrant minors and their context, (b) prior training in ethics, interculturality and emotional self-regulation through a structured reflection space (group discussion, debriefings, etc.) before and during the SL experience, and (c) ensuring ongoing supervision by the university’s academic staff and professionals from the collaborating institution.

The potential benefits of this research for the university students and for society in general outweigh the possible risks of harm to the university participants because SL has a direct impact on pre-service teachers and, therefore, on their future pupils and families. An inclusive experience such as SL among university students might help them to change negative stereotypes of migrant minors in society, leading to easier social inclusion of this collective in their immediate context.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

Thanks to all participants and the institutions involved in the Service-Learning experience. This manuscript is part of the Pedro Jesús Ruiz-Montero’s research stay in the University of Porto (Portugal), Call of 2023, Vice-Rectorate of Research, University of Granada (Spain). No Human being is illegal (Elie Wiesel).

ORCID iDs

Pedro Jesús Ruiz-Montero

Eduardo García-Mármol

Eeva-Maria Hooli

Paula Batista

María Luisa Santos-Pastor

Ethical Considerations

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Ethics Committee of University of Granada, Spain (protocol Code: 3212/CEIH/2023 and date of approval: 2023/13/09) for studies involving humans.

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the grant PID2022-141644OB-I00 funded by MICIU/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and by ERDF/EU. In addition, funding was obtained in the FIDO 2022 call (project no. 22-172), Unit of the Quality, Teaching Innovation and Prospective Unit, University of Granada, Spain; in the 2022 call for Equality, Social Inclusion and Promotion of Research of the vice rector’s office of Equality, Inclusion and Sustainability with no. INV-IGU185-2022, University of Granada, Spain; and in the 2023 call for Equality, Social Inclusion and Promotion of Research of the vice rector’s office of Equality, Inclusion and Sustainability with no. INV-INC259-2023, University of Granada, Spain.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author and the repository figshare: .

References

Ammons

S. K.

Edgell

(2007). Religious influences on work-family trade-offs. Journal of Family Issues, 28, 794–826.

(2021). Learning to teach students with disabilities through community service-learning: Physical education preservice teachers’ experiences. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 68, 442–455.

Baeza Correa

. (2022). Jóvenes “sin religión”: Desde una relación lineal a una trayectoria abierta en las vinculaciones entre creencia, religión e iglesia. Perspectiva Teológica, 54(3), 775–797. https://doi.org/10.20911/21768757v54n3p775/2022

Batson

C. D.

Powell

A. A.

(2003). Altruism and prosocial behaviour. In Millon

Lerner

M. J.

(Eds.), Handbook of psychology: Personality and social psychology (pp. 463–484). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/0471264385.wei0519

Benn

Dagkas

(2006). Incompatible? Compulsory mixed-sex physical education initial teacher training (PEITT) and the inclusion of Muslim women: A case-study on seeking solutions. European Physical Education Review, 12, 181–200.

Blanch

Edo

París

(2020). Mejora de las competencias personales y prosociales implementando Proyectos de Aprendizaje-Servicio durante las prácticas en la Universidad. Revista de Docencia Universitaria, 18, 123–142.

Bruce

(2015). On racism and prejudice: Exploring post-critical possibilities for service learning within physical education teacher education. Asia-Pacific Journal of Health, Sport and Physical Education, 6, 233–244. https://doi.org/10.1080/18377122.2015.1092720

Chambers

Lavery

(2022). International service learning: Benefits, challenges and experiences of pre-service teachers. Asia Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 50, 498–514. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359866X.2022.2050355

Chapman

C. N.

(2007). Freud, religion and anxiety. Lulu. com.

10.

Chiva-Bartoll

Jesus Ruiz-Montero

Leiva Olivencia

J. J.

Gronlund

(2021). The effects of service-learning on physical education teacher education: A case study on the border between Africa and Europe. European Physical Education Review, 27(4), 1014–1031. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X211007156

11.

Choi

Han

Kim

(2023). Exploring key service-learning experiences that promote students’ learning in higher education. Asia Pacific Education Review. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-023-09833-5

12.

Cohen

J. A.

(1992). Una introducción al poder. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155–159.

13.

Compare

Albanesi

(2023). Belief, attitude and critical understanding: A systematic review of social justice in Service-Learning experiences. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 33, 332–355. https://doi.org/10.1002/casp.2639

14.

Corral-Robles

Hooli

E.-M.

Ortega-Martín

J. L.

Ruiz-Montero

P. J.

(2022). Competences and physical activity-based service-learning of future primary school English teachers. Retos, 45, 821–832.

15.

Cortés-Amador

Faubel Cava

Marqués Sulé

Aguilar Rodríguez

Sempere Rubio

(2018). Innovative teaching methods: The film forum as a collaborative learning tool in the classroom. EDULEARN18 Proceedings, Palma, Spain (pp. 9000–9004).

16.

Coyle

Bower

Foley

Hancock

(2021). Teachers as designers of learning in diverse, bilingual classrooms in England: An ADiBE case study. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2021.1989373

17.

Cuadra-Martínez

Pérez-Zapata

Sandoval-Díaz

Javier Castro

Oyanadel

Mora-Dabancens

Cuadra-Carrasco

González-Palta

(2023). Religion, gratitude and behavior prosocial: A predictive model. Revista CES Psicología, 16(3), 16–29. https://doi.org/10.21615/cesp.6669

18.

Daum

D. N.

Marttinen

Banville

(2022). Service-learning experiences for pre-service teachers: Cultural competency and behavior management challenges when working with a diverse low-income community. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 27, 396–408. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2021.1891210

19.

DeMarais

S. C.

Mumford

S. W.

Ryan

T. F.

(2022). The transformative potential of service-learning in an African religious context. International Journal of Research on Service-Learning and Community Engagement, 10, 11. https://doi.org/10.37333/001c.66270

20.

Duarte Nares

B. J

. (2022). Qualitative research and transdisciplinary for the strengthening of university social responsibility. Educación Superior, 33, 119–129. https://doi.org/10.56918/es.2022.i33.pp119-129

21.

Fedele

(2013). The diasporic Islamic masculinity and the reformulation of European Islam: Theoretical approaches and interpretative perspective. Nómadas, 40, 139–174.

22.

Feldmann

(2007). Protestantism, labor force participation, and employment across countries. American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 66, 795–816.

23.

Fishbein

Ajzen

. (2010). Predicting and changing behavior: The reasoned action approach. Psychology Press.

24.

Fitranita

Sriwidharmanely

Hatta

(2023). Religiousity, cohesiveness, honesty, ethical judgment, accounting students’ intention to report friends’ academic fraud. In Advances in economics, business and management research (p. 53). Atlantis Press. https://doi.org/10.2991/978-94-6463-328-3_7

25.

Flere

(2007). Gender and religious orientation. Social Compass, 54, 239–253.

26.

Gauly

(2017). The intergenerational transmission of attitudes: Analyzing time preferences and reciprocity. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 38, 293–312. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-016-9513-4

27.

Gil-Gómez

Chiva-Bartoll

Ó.

Martí-Puig

(2013). The development of social and civic skills in college through Service-Learning: A quantitative and qualitative study in the field of Physical Education. RIEJS, 2(2), 89–108.

28.

Gil-Gómez

Moliner-García

Chiva-Bartoll

Ó.

García-López

(2016). Una experiencia de aprendizaje-servicio en futuros docentes: desarrollo de la competencia social y ciudadana. Revista Complutense de Educación, 27(1), 53–73.

29.

González Ortiz

D. A.

Zúñiga Día

N. M.

Díaz Castellar

A. A

. (2022). Responsability and globalization. Revista Dialogus, 4, 44–55.

30.

Gruber

(2020). Can women in interreligious dialogue speak? Productions of in/visibility at the intersection of religion, gender, and race. Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion, 36(1), 51–69. https://doi.org/10.2979/jfemistudreli.36.1.06

31.

Guetto

Luijkx

Scherer

(2015). Religiosity, gender attitudes and women’s labour market participation and fertility decisions in Europe. Acta Sociologica, 58, 155–172. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001699315573335

32.

Hooli

E.-M.

Corral-Robles

Ortega-Martín

J. L.

Baena-Extremera

Ruiz-Montero

P. J.

(2023). The impact of service learning on academic, professional and physical wellbeing competences of EFL teacher education students. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20, 4852. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20064852

33.

Hooli

E.-M.

Santos-Pastor

M. L.

González-Fernández

F. T.

Ortega-Martín

J. L.

López-Vallejo

M-Á.

Martínez-Muñoz

L. F.

Corral-Robles

García-Carmona

Rodríguez-Jiménez

Carrero-Segura

Oplatka

Ruiz-Montero

P. J.

(2025). Intercultural education, language learning and physical activity of university students through service-learning with migrants in Europe's land border with Africa: The INCLUSO project. Espiral. Cuadernos del Profesorado, 18(37), 32–46. https://doi.org/10.25115/ecp.v18i37.10364

34.

Iturbide

Santana Valencia

E. V.

(2023). Ethical profile of the university professor facing the challenges of inclusion and diversity. HOLOS, 2, e15155.

35.

Jiang

Zhang

Pian

(2022). Chatbot as an emergency exist: Mediated empathy for resilience via human-AI interaction during the COVID-19 pandemic. Information Processing & Management, 59(6), 103074. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ipm.2022.103074.

36.

Jones

A. L.

Kiser

P. M.

(2014). Conceptualizing criticality as a guiding principle for high quality academic service learning. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 26, 147–156.

37.

Kaneez

Imtiaz

(2022). Effect of gender and levels of religiosity on prosocial behaviour of youth. International Journal of Health Sciences, 6(S7), 2906–2917. https://doi.org/10.53730/ijhs.v6nS7.12300

38.

Kim

T.-Y.

Yoon-Kyoung

(2015). English learning motivation and attitudes of students at the department of English education: Focusing on pre-service English teachers as learners. Journal of Learner-Centered Curriculum and Instruction, 15, 247–268.

39.

Kirkgoz

(2019). Preservice EFL teachers’ perceptions and their reflected experiences in a service-learning course. In York

Tikler

Tinkler

(Eds.), Service learning to advance access and success: Bridging institutional and community capacity (pp. 309–333). Information Age Publishing.

40.

Kroll

Vogel

(2014). The PSM-leadership fit: A model of performance information use. Public Administration, 92, 974–991.

41.

Kyungbin

Seohyun

(2018). The effects of overseas volunteer service experience on students’ attitudes for English learning focusing on service learning. Studies in English Education, 23, 147–173.

42.

Leary

Sherlock

(2020). Service-learning or internship: A mixed-methods evaluation of experiential learning pedagogies. Education Research International. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/1683270

43.

Lenhard

(2022). Computation of effect sizes. Psychometr. https://www.psychometrica.de/effect_size.html

44.

Lleixà

Nieva

(2018). The social inclusion of immigrant girls in and through physical education. Perceptions and decisions of physical education teachers. Sport, Education and Society, 25, 185–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2018.1563882

45.

Maravé-Vivas

Gil-Gómez

Valverde-Esteve

Salvador-Garcia

Chiva-Bartoll

(2022). A longitudinal study of the effects of service-learning on physical education teacher education students. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 787346. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.787346

46.

Maravé-Vivas

Salvador-García

Capella-Peris

Gil-Gómez

(2023). Service-learning and motor skills in initial teacher training: Doubling down on inclusive education. Apunts Educación Física y Deportes, 152, 82–89.

47.

Marczuk

Strauss

(2023). Does context matter? The gendered impact of study conditions on dropout intentions from higher education. Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft, 26, 1349–1371. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11618-023-01175-7

48.

Marttinen

Daum

D. N.

Banville

Fredrick

R. N.

(2020). Pre-service teachers learning through service-learning in a low SES school. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 25, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2019.1670153

49.

Matusovich

H. M.

Oakes

Zoltowski

C. B.

(2013). Why women choose service-learning: seeking and finding engineering-related experiences. International Journal of Engineering Education, 29, 388–402.

50.

McInerney

D. M.

Davidson

Suliman

Tremayne

(2000). Personal development, health and physical education in context: Muslim and catholic perspectives. Australian Journal of Education, 44, 26–42.

51.

Miller

A. S.

Stark

(2002). Gender and religiousness: Can socialization explanations be saved? American Journal of Sociology, 107(6), 1399–1423. https://doi.org/10.1086/342557

52.

Neal

M. B.

Cannon

DeLaTorre

Bolkan

C. R.

Wernher

Nolan

López Norori

Largaespada-Fredersdorff

Brown Wilson

(2017). Addressing the needs of Nicaraguan older adults living on the edge: A university-community partnership in international service-learning. Gerontology & Geriatrics Education, 38(1), 119–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701960.2016.1259161

53.

Neyrinck

Vansteenkiste

Lens

Soenens

(2010). Updating Allport’s and Batson’s framework of religious orientations: a reevaluation from the perspective of self-determination theory and Wulff’s social cognitive model. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 49(3), 425–438.

54.

Núñez

Rojas

(2003). La evaluación en un enfoque centrado en competencias. Pensamiento Educativo, 33, 63–85.

55.

Oduro-Appiah

Afful

Osei-Tutu

(2024). Using an extended model of the reasoned action approach to explore individual behavioral intentions regarding litter and plastic pollution prevention in a developing country. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1274765. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1274765

56.

Palpacuer-Lee

Curtis

J. H.

(2017). Into the realm of the politically incorrect: Intercultural encounters in a service-learning program. International Journal of Multicultural Education, 19, 163–181.https://doi.org/10.18251/ijme.v19i2.1239

57.

Pang

Ruan

(2024) Disentangling composite influences of social connectivity and system interactivity on continuance intention in mobile short video applications: The pivotal moderation of user-perceived benefits. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 80, 103923. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jretconser.2024.103923.

58.

Pang

Wang

(2025). Deciphering dynamic effects of mobile app addiction, privacy concern and cognitive overload on subjective well-being and academic expectancy: The pivotal function of perceived technostress. Technology in Society, 81, 102861. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2025.102861.

59.

Peralta

L. R.

Marvell

C. L.

Cotton

W. G.

(2021). A sustainable service-learning program embedded in PETE: Examining the short-term influence on preservice teacher outcomes. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 40(1), 39–48. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.2019-0055

60.

Pérez-Pueyo

Hortigüela-Alcalá

González-Calvo

Fernández-Río

(2019). Muévete conmigo, un proyecto de aprendizaje servicio en el contexto de la educación física, la actividad física y el deporte. Publicaciones, 49, 183–198.

61.

Regehr

Glancy

Pitts

(2013). Interventions to reduce stress in university students: A review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 148, 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2012.11.026

62.

Relaño-Pastor

(2021). Derechos de las mujeres y libertad religiosa: ¿irreconciliables? Cuestiones de Pluralismo, 1(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.58428/RVEC5834

63.

Ruiz-Montero

P. J.

Corral-Robles

García-Carmona

, et al. (2023). Development of prosocial competencies in PETE and Sport Science students. Social justice, Service-Learning and Physical Activity in cultural diversity contexts. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 28, 244–258.

64.

Ruiz-Montero

P. J.

Santos-Pastor

M. L.

Martínez-Muñoz

L. F.

Chiva-Bartol

(2022). Influence of the university service-learning on professional skill of students from physical activity and sport degree. Educación XX1, 25, 119–141. https://doi.org/10.5944/educxx1.30533

65.

Sales

Monfort

(2019). Vinculándose al territorio: el Aprendizaje-Servicio y la participación comunitaria. Estudio de caso en una escuela rural. International Journal of New Education, 3, 1–18.

66.

Salgado

(2014). Review of empirical studies on impact of religion, religiosity and spirituality as protective factors. Propósitos y Representaciones, 2, 121–159.

67.

Saroglou

(2006). Religion’s role in prosocial behavior: Myth or reality? Psychology of Religion Newsletter, 31(2), 1–8.

68.

Sarrazín

J. P.

Mira-Sarmiento

(2023). Feminine spirituality and reflexive modernization in women’s circles. Entramado, 19, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.18041/1900-3803/entramado.1.8688

69.

Schoenherr

(2015). Service-Learning in supply chain management: Benefits, challenges and best practices. Decision Sciences Journal of Innovative Education, 13, 45–70.

70.

Stranges

(2022). The intergenerational transmission of female labour force participation by gender among native and immigrant Europeans: A focus on religion. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 43, 774–798. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-021-09790-4

71.

Tinkler

McGann

Tinkler

(2017). Learning from each other: using a service-learning citizenship course to promote intercultural understanding. Intercultural Education, 28, 447–455. http://doi.org/10.1080/14675986.2017.1335861

72.

Van Osselaer

. (2012). Masculinity and catholicism: The leagues of the Sacred Heart in Belgium, 1900–1940. European History Quarterly, 42, 422–443. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265691412448160

73.

Vansteenkiste

Ryan

R.M.

Deci

E.L.

(2008). Self-determination theory and the explanatory role of psychological needs in human well-being. In Bruni

Comim

Pugno

(Eds.), Capabilities and happiness (pp. 187–223). Oxford University Press.

74.

Vergés Bosch

Freude

Camps Calvet

. (2021). Service learning with a gender perspective: Reconnecting service learning with feminist research and pedagogy in sociology. Teaching Sociology, 49, 136–149. https://doi.org/10.1177/0092055X2199346

75.

Walton-Fisette

J. L.

Sutherland

(2018). Moving forward with social justice education in physical education teacher education. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 23, 461–468.

76.

Watts

(2018). On the politics of self-spirituality: A Canadian case study. Ciencias Religieuses, 47, 345–372.

77.

Wright

Christensen

(2010). Public service motivation: A test of the job attraction–selection–attrition model. International Public Management Journal, 13, 155–176.

78.

Zacharoff

(2020). Women in religious leadership and interfaith dialogue: The challenges faced and possible solutions. Journal of Interreligious Studies, 30, 45–56.