Abstract
The Catholic Church, as a global institution rooted in sacramental and embodied traditions, faces distinctive challenges in integrating digital technologies into its liturgical practices. This study explores how intrinsic and extrinsic religious motivations influence Catholic parishioners’ satisfaction with online Eucharistic celebrations and their intention to continue attending them. Given the centrality of physical presence in the Eucharist understood as a real and symbolic encounter with Christ the transition to virtual formats raises theological and experiential complexities. Based on a quantitative survey of 1,781 parishioners in Bogotá, Colombia, the findings indicate that intrinsic motivation positively affects both satisfaction and continued participation in virtual Eucharists, while extrinsic motivation has a negative impact. These results underscore the role of internalized faith in sustaining spiritual engagement through digital channels. The study contributes to the literature on religious innovation by offering empirical insights into how Catholic believers negotiate sacred rituals in the context of technological mediation.
Keywords
Introduction
The academic literature includes numerous studies analyzing the Eucharist and its impact on Catholic parishioners from diverse sociodemographic perspectives. However, the majority of these investigations have focused on the traditional in-person rite. In contrast, there is a notable lack of research addressing how Catholic parishioners perceive participation in the Eucharist through virtual formats a practice that remained marginal before the COVID-19 pandemic.
It is worth noting that, even prior to the pandemic, Eucharistic celebrations were occasionally broadcast via television, radio, and digital platforms, either through individual parishes or directly from the Vatican. However, it was only with the onset of the COVID-19 crisis and the enforcement of global lockdowns that these media channels experienced unprecedented growth in audience reach, as public worship became temporarily impossible (Areiza-Padilla et al., 2022).
In this context, the pandemic acted as a catalyst, solidifying digital platforms as the sole medium for religious connection and serving as a spiritual bridge between God and parishioners who could no longer attend Mass physically. Although digital Eucharistic practices expanded rapidly during the pandemic, their roots lie in earlier Church efforts to reach those unable to be physically present. The Catholic Church had already begun integrating digital media particularly televised broadcasts from the Vatican and other dioceses to serve specific populations such as the elderly, the infirm, and those living in remote or rural areas. These initiatives established an early precedent for technologically mediated sacramental experiences (Mofokeng, 2023).
Nonetheless, prior to 2020, scholarly engagement with the theological and pastoral implications of such practices remained limited. The pandemic marked a turning point, transforming online Eucharistic celebrations from supplemental resources into the primary mode of spiritual engagement for many Catholics (Ballano, 2021). This shift ushered in an unprecedented techno-liturgical transformation and sparked new research on participation, satisfaction, and perceptions of ritual authenticity in digital settings (Martasudjita et al., 2023; Martyr, 2022). The present study is situated within these historical and contemporary trajectories of mediated Eucharistic practice, examining how intrinsic and extrinsic religious motivations influence Catholic parishioners’ perceptions of online Eucharist in the post-pandemic context.
The widespread adoption of communication technologies extended beyond religious life, reshaping numerous aspects of daily existence including work, education, exercise, and recreation. These tools quickly evolved into essential components of everyday routines, even after restrictions were lifted. As a result, the pandemic accelerated the normalization and integration of digital tools across societal domains, fundamentally transforming patterns of interaction and communication (Areiza-Padilla & Galindo-Becerra, 2022a, 2022b).
Parish (2020) defines a religious community within the Christian context as one characterized by active belonging to the faith, which includes adherence to its rituals, norms, and traditions. From this perspective, attending the Eucharist constitutes a core expression of commitment to the faith community. While traditionally practiced in person, the pandemic opened the door for virtual attendance as a legitimate form of religious engagement.
Regardless of format physical or digital the Eucharist remains a sacred ritual for Catholic parishioners. It offers a moment of collective worship and spiritual nourishment, evoking the image of the Kingdom of God and fostering a deeply personal and communal religious experience that nurtures the heart, mind, and soul.
Historically, the Catholic Church’s influence has extended across social, political, and economic spheres, sustained through the transmission of enduring traditions and rituals passed down through generations. These rites foster strong communal bonds and religious continuity (Parish, 2020). Central to their power is their embodied nature: liturgical practices are inherently multisensory, engaging sight, smell, hearing, taste, and touch elements long considered essential to meaningful spiritual experience. The tangible nature of communal worship reinforces the sense of belonging and divine connection.
However, the rise of internet technologies presents a new challenge: how can the Church maintain spiritually meaningful experiences in a virtual, often disembodied environment? The integration of technology into religious life has sparked widespread debate not only within ecclesiastical circles but also throughout broader society, where digital tools now influence nearly every facet of life.
Critics have argued that modernization, particularly through digitalization, correlates with a decline in spiritual and moral values especially among younger generations. They contend that technological advancement has disrupted traditional value systems and eroded the mechanisms of moral formation, contributing to what some perceive as a cultural crisis (Campbell, 2005a).
Mesch and Talmud (2006) similarly argue that physical presence is often indispensable for deep social fulfillment. They suggest that online relationships tend to lack the emotional depth and intimacy that emerge from face-to-face interaction, which is built through shared daily experiences. From this view, digital interactions may foster disconnection and dilute one's integration into everyday communal life.
Nonetheless, Campbell (2005b) challenges these assumptions by proposing that religious communities can adapt to technological change. His research introduces the concept of the “spiritualization” of digital tools granting them religious legitimacy when they promote cohesion and continuity within religious life, even in mediated environments.
In the same vein, Kluver and Cheong (2007) demonstrate that religion and technology are not inherently incompatible. Their work illustrates how information technologies can enhance religious practice by expanding outreach and enabling deeper engagement with both current members and potential adherents. This evolving perspective contests earlier secularization theories, which predicted that modernization would lead to the erosion of religious belief and practice. On the contrary, emerging evidence suggests that many religious institutions now view digital tools as strategic allies for expanding their mission and strengthening community ties (Kluver & Cheong, 2007).
Park (2021) contributes further by emphasizing the relevance of intrinsic and extrinsic religious motivations as frameworks for understanding why individuals engage in religious practices. While these constructs are well established in the literature, Park notes the ongoing need to clarify their definitions, measurement, and cultural interpretations.
According to Allport (1966) and Allport and Ross (1967), intrinsic motivation reflects a genuine internal commitment to faith, wherein religion functions as a central guiding force in one’s life. In contrast, extrinsic motivation refers to the use of religion as a means to achieve other goals such as social affiliation, personal security, or community status. From this perspective, individuals either live their faith as a life-defining principle or approach it instrumentally.
Consequently, a parishioner’s satisfaction with participating in the Eucharist online may be shaped by their underlying religious motivation. Those driven by intrinsic motives may find greater spiritual fulfillment in virtual participation, whereas those with extrinsic motivations may perceive it as less meaningful or effective.
Theological Nature of the Eucharist and the Limits of Virtual Participation
The Eucharist stands at the heart of the Catholic faith, not as a mere symbol but as an ontologically real sacrament. According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church (1992, §1374), “in the most blessed sacrament of the Eucharist, the body and blood, together with the soul and divinity, of our Lord Jesus Christ and, therefore, the whole Christ is truly, really, and substantially contained.” This doctrine of transubstantiation affirms that Christ is truly present under the appearances of bread and wine, making the Eucharist not only a commemorative act but a tangible, sacramental encounter with God Himself.
Given its sacramental nature, the Eucharist requires the physical presence of the priest, the consecrated elements, and the gathered community. As explained in the Catechism (§1352–1353), the sacrament takes place in real time and physical space through the liturgical words of consecration and the epiclesis of the Holy Spirit. Consequently, although virtual celebrations may provide spiritual nourishment and emotional connection, they cannot substitute the full sacramental reality. The Congregation for Divine Worship explicitly stated: “A virtual Mass is not a valid substitute for physical participation, particularly regarding sacramental communion” (Let Us Return to the Eucharist with Joy; Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, 2020).
This requirement for physicality is deeply rooted in the theology of the Incarnation God became flesh in Jesus Christ (John 1:14) and, by extension, in the embodied nature of sacramental life. As the Second Vatican Council affirmed in Sacrosanctum Concilium (Second Vatican Council, 1963, §7), “Christ is always present in the liturgy, especially in the Eucharistic species.” It further emphasizes the necessity of “full, conscious, and active participation” by the faithful (§14). While online celebrations can support spiritual connection, they cannot replicate the embodied, communal experience essential to the Eucharistic mystery.
The Church’s encouragement of online participation particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic must therefore be understood within a pastoral, not sacramental, framework. As noted in Ecclesia de Eucharistia (Paul, 2003, §10), online attendance may promote spiritual communion, but it lacks the ontological efficacy of sacramental communion. Thus, virtual Eucharists should be regarded not as theological equivalents but as temporary pastoral accommodations in times of necessity.
Integrating this theological perspective is critical for interpreting parishioners’ motivations and their levels of satisfaction with online liturgical participation. Those with intrinsic religious motivations, who regard the Eucharist as a sacred and real encounter with Christ, may find virtual celebrations meaningful but ultimately incomplete. In contrast, parishioners driven by extrinsic motivations may perceive virtual Mass as lacking in social fulfillment or emotional resonance due to the absence of embodied community. These theological insights reinforce and enrich the psychological constructs examined in this study.
While a substantial body of literature addresses traditional in-person Eucharistic celebrations, research on the virtual Eucharist remains limited. As such, further exploration is necessary to understand how digital mediation affects parishioners’ perceptions and experiences of the sacrament. Due to the fundamental differences between physical and virtual forms of worship, conclusions derived from studies on in-person Eucharist cannot be indiscriminately applied to the digital context.
This research seeks to fill that gap by contributing to the evolving scholarship on how digital technologies are reshaping religious rituals, particularly the Eucharist, and how these changes are being received by Catholic believers. As digital platforms become increasingly embedded in religious life, this study investigates the intrinsic and extrinsic motivations influencing Catholic parishioners’ participation in online Eucharistic celebrations. It aims to identify emerging patterns and interpret their implications, especially in a post-pandemic context where physical restrictions have eased.
The remainder of this article is organized as follows: first, it presents a theoretical discussion of intrinsic and extrinsic religious motivations and their influence on satisfaction and the intention to continue attending virtual Eucharists. The next sections outline the research model and hypotheses (Figure 1), describe the quantitative methodology, report the empirical findings, and discuss their broader implications. The article concludes with reflections and directions for future research.
Model and hypothesis of research.
In light of the growing prevalence of online Eucharistic celebrations, this study seeks to examine how different types of religious motivation intrinsic and extrinsic influence Catholic parishioners' levels of satisfaction and their behavioral intention to continue attending virtual Eucharists. By integrating theological insights with psychological and communication theories, the research provides an empirical framework for understanding the dynamics of religious engagement in digital contexts
Literature Review
Intrinsic-Extrinsic Religious Motivation
Motivation refers to a set of internal (intrinsic) or external (extrinsic) factors that influence an individual’s behavior and decision-making. In essence, the more motivated a person is, the more determined they are to achieve a particular goal (Ryan & Deci, 2000).
According to Michaels et al. (2021), motivation not only drives personal objectives but also shapes individual beliefs, thereby influencing one’s worldview and approach to life. These motivational forces are typically organized according to personal importance, guiding the actions taken to achieve desired outcomes.
Among the different types of motivation, religious motivation stands out as one that seeks to satisfy individuals’ spiritual needs. It aligns closely with one’s personal belief system and informs both their attitudes and behaviors. Religion and spirituality, in this sense, are key elements in shaping individual identity, self-concept, interpersonal perceptions, and the core values that govern daily life (Park, 2017).
Kirkpatrick (1993) distinguished between two main orientations in religious motivation. First, extrinsic religious orientation involves using religion instrumentally to gain benefits such as personal security, emotional comfort, or social affiliation. In this view, religion becomes a means to fulfill individual needs. In contrast, intrinsic religious orientation is characterized by a sincere internalization of faith. Individuals with this orientation engage in religious practices as an expression of devotion, gratitude, and commitment to their spiritual beliefs.
Building on this framework, Araújo et al. (2021) further elaborate that intrinsic orientation regards religion as a central guiding force in life. Individuals motivated in this way pursue spiritual goals tied to their religious identity, integrating faith into all aspects of their existence. In contrast, those with extrinsic motivations approach religion as a vehicle for achieving social inclusion or status tools to gain approval or meet social expectations. Thus, intrinsic religious motivation enables individuals to live their faith, while extrinsic motivation leads them to use religion as a means to an end (Araújo et al., 2021).
Empirical studies have shown that religious motivation regardless of its type is often associated with better mental health, more positive emotional states, and higher levels of self-esteem and social connectivity. It also tends to foster greater resilience in the face of adversity, promoting a more constructive attitude toward life challenges (Roberts & Maxfield, 2018).
Michaels et al. (2021) observed that many parishioners are spiritually motivated to attend religious services, seeking affirmation of personal beliefs and a stronger connection to their place in the universe. For some, religious services serve as spaces for prayer and introspection, offering solace during difficult times or clarity in decision-making. For others, especially in societies where religion plays a prominent social role, attendance can fulfill social expectations ensuring public visibility and belonging within their communities.
Parish (2020) identified that the COVID-19 pandemic triggered widespread uncertainty and fear, reigniting both intrinsic and extrinsic religious motivations among believers. This heightened sense of spirituality led many to participate in the Eucharist as a way of seeking divine connection, even when celebrated virtually. Although Eucharistic celebrations had been previously broadcast via television or social media, the pandemic exponentially increased reliance on digital formats, transforming them into the primary means of worship. In many cases, parishioners turned to online Eucharists as a spiritual refuge during a time of unprecedented crisis, driven by a desire for peace amidst uncertainty.
To strengthen the theoretical foundation of this study, two well-established theories are considered: Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and Media Richness Theory (MRT).
Self-Determination Theory (SDT), developed by Deci and Ryan (2000, 2013), provides a comprehensive framework to distinguish between intrinsic motivation driven by inherent interest and satisfaction and extrinsic motivation, which is shaped by the pursuit of external rewards or social approval. In the context of religious participation, SDT helps explain why parishioners may attend virtual Eucharist out of sincere spiritual devotion (intrinsic) or due to social expectation or community pressure (extrinsic).
Media Richness Theory (MRT), introduced by Daft and Lengel (1986), posits that communication media vary in their capacity to effectively transmit rich information. In religious settings, face-to-face Eucharists offer multisensory, interactive experiences, whereas virtual formats (e.g., television or Zoom) offer lower media richness. MRT supports the idea that digital Eucharist may be less satisfying for parishioners who depend on interpersonal or sensory cues.
By combining SDT and MRT, the study frames motivation and digital religious practice within a broader behavioral and communication context, reinforcing the relevance and interpretative power of the hypotheses proposed.
Intention to Attend Online Eucharist Again
The concept of repurchase intention is well established in the literature, referring to a customer’s willingness to buy a product or service again after a satisfactory experience. Typically, a satisfied consumer is more likely to return to the same product or vendor and to recommend the product to others (Wen et al., 2011).
This principle applies similarly in digital environments. When a virtual product or service exceeds user expectations, it generates satisfaction and increases the likelihood of repeat usage. However, in online settings, trust in the platform and the overall digital experience becomes a decisive factor in user retention (Lin & Lekhawipat, 2014).
In the context of religion, the concept of “repurchase” does not directly apply due to the absence of commercial exchange. Rather, religious services are offered as a means to nourish spiritual life. Nonetheless, some studies have explored how religiosity can influence consumer behavior, including purchase intention in religious or culturally relevant markets (Nora, 2019; Shahid et al., 2023).
Drawing on Areiza-Padilla et al. (2022), this study conceptualizes the intention to attend online Eucharist again as the parishioner’s willingness to continue engaging in virtual Eucharistic celebrations via TV or digital platforms such as Zoom, Meet, or Teams. This intention may be shaped by a combination of religious tradition, social influence, and a desire for spiritual connection.
Satisfaction
Satisfaction is a subjective state of well-being and fulfillment arising from experiences in various areas of life. Several theoretical models explain how satisfaction shapes behavior. For instance, Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg, 1968) distinguishes between extrinsic “hygiene” factors and intrinsic “motivators.” Hygiene factors relate to environmental conditions (e.g., salary, benefits) whose absence causes dissatisfaction but whose presence does not guarantee satisfaction. Motivational factors, in contrast, are linked to the task itself and include elements such as recognition and achievement, which foster greater personal satisfaction.
Maslow’s (1951) Hierarchy of Needs also provides insight into satisfaction. This theory posits that human needs are structured hierarchically, from physiological and safety needs to social, esteem, and self-actualization needs. As individuals fulfill lower-level needs, they become increasingly motivated to satisfy higher-order needs, including spiritual and existential fulfillment.
Giese and Cote (2000) identified three key components of satisfaction: (1) cognitive appraisal, (2) prior expectations, and (3) post-experience evaluation. Satisfaction, therefore, emerges from comparing expected outcomes with actual experiences.
From a religious perspective, the Eucharist symbolizes forgiveness and reconciliation. During the ceremony, specific prayers seek absolution from God, reconciliation with others, and internal peace. This sacramental participation often brings emotional relief to attendees, instilling a sense of spiritual healing and renewal (Frankovich, 1981).
Areiza-Padilla et al. (2022) define parishioner satisfaction with the Eucharist as an emotional and spiritual response linked to the perceived connection with God, facilitated through symbols and rituals that enrich the experience. The stronger this perceived connection, the greater the resulting satisfaction. In a different but complementary context, Collazos-Ortiz et al. (2025) demonstrated that Catholic brand credibility significantly enhances students’ satisfaction and trust in Catholic business schools in Colombia. Together, these findings indicate that Catholic identity consistently operates as a source of legitimacy, fostering satisfaction and commitment across diverse domains—from liturgical participation to educational settings.
For many believers, the Eucharist is a profound encounter with the divine, offering inner peace, spiritual clarity, and forgiveness. Satisfaction stems not just from ritual participation but from the depth of spiritual communion it enables (De Keyzer, 2005; Radcliffe, 2008).
Macy (2012) highlights that the most meaningful aspect of the Eucharist is the parishioner's ability to feel the presence of Christ. Rituals performed during the service are designed to heighten this sense of divine connection. Consequently, satisfaction is closely tied to this spiritual experience.
Building on the work of Brañas-Garza and Neuman (2004), Rymarz (2007), Thiessen (2015), and Park (2021), this study assumes that parishioners may be motivated by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, which in turn affect their willingness or reluctance to attend online Eucharistic celebrations.
These motivations are expected to influence the level of satisfaction with virtual Eucharists. Extrinsic motivation, as described by Kirkpatrick (1993) and Araújo et al. (2021), involves seeking personal benefits (e.g., status or group inclusion). In the context of online religious services, this orientation may diminish satisfaction, since the digital format minimizes social visibility and interaction.
Areiza-Padilla et al. (2022) found that virtual Eucharists reduce opportunities for social recognition among peers, limiting one’s ability to display religious commitment publicly. Thus, extrinsic religious motivations are not likely to generate high satisfaction in virtual contexts. Guided by the theoretical perspectives of Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and Media Richness Theory (MRT), the following hypotheses are proposed to explain how different types of religious motivation may influence satisfaction with and intention to continue attending online Eucharists.
Conversely, intrinsic religious motivation as defined by Kirkpatrick (1993) and Araújo et al. (2021) is grounded in a commitment to live one’s faith as a guiding principle. Individuals with intrinsic motivation integrate religion into all aspects of their lives.
Drawing again on Areiza-Padilla et al. (2022), it is reasonable to expect that intrinsic motivations are positively associated with both satisfaction and intention to continue attending online Eucharists. For intrinsically motivated parishioners, Eucharistic participation whether in-person or virtual is a sacred duty and part of their spiritual routine. Hence, the following hypotheses are also proposed:
Methodology
Sampling and Data Collection
This study was carried out in Bogotá, Colombia a country where Catholicism remains the dominant religious affiliation. According to Beltrán and Silva (2020), in collaboration with the National University of Colombia, World Vision, the Swedish Church, and the Inter-Ecclesial Commission of Justice and Peace, approximately 57.2% of Colombians identify as Catholic. This demographic context underscores the relevance of focusing the research on Catholic parishioners within this setting.
A convenience sampling method was used, targeting individuals who had participated in at least one virtual Eucharistic celebration whether through television or digital platforms following the lifting of COVID-19 quarantine restrictions, at a time when in-person worship had resumed.
Considering the sociodemographic characteristics of the Catholic population, particularly the regular participation of older parishioners in religious services, data collection was conducted in person. The process took place on Sundays, between the second half of 2021 and the first half of 2023, during regularly scheduled Masses.
The selected site was the Santuario del Divino Niño Jesús, located in the “20 de Julio” neighborhood of Bogotá. This location was chosen based on several key factors:
It is one of Bogotá’s most historically significant and widely attended Catholic shrines, inaugurated in 1942. It attracts a highly diverse congregation, representing various socioeconomic and educational backgrounds. Prior to the pandemic, the shrine received approximately 70,000 visitors every Sunday.
A total of 1,781 parishioners completed the survey. Of these, 1,136 were women (63.8%) and 645 were men (36.2%). Additionally, 91.2% of respondents were aged 36 or older, indicating a predominantly mature sample. In terms of virtual Eucharistic attendance, television was the most commonly used medium (40.5%), followed by digital conferencing platforms such as Zoom, Google Meet, and Microsoft Teams (31.8%), and social media platforms such as Facebook and YouTube (27.7%).
An a priori power analysis was performed using G*Power 3.1 to establish the minimum sample size required for the study. Based on standard parameters assuming a medium effect size (f2 = 0.15), an alpha level of .05, a statistical power of .95, and four predictors in the model the analysis recommended a minimum of 129 participants. The final sample comprised 1,781 respondents, significantly surpassing this requirement and thereby guaranteeing sufficient statistical power to support the robustness of the structural equation modeling results.
The dataset was thoroughly examined for missing values prior to analysis. Less than 2% of the responses contained missing data, a proportion well below the 5% threshold advised by Hair et al. (2021). Given this minimal level of missingness, listwise deletion was employed as an appropriate handling method. Furthermore, no discernible patterns of missing data were detected, supporting the assumption that the missingness was random and unlikely to bias the results.
Of the 1,850 surveys distributed, a total of 1,781 were fully completed and deemed valid for inclusion in the analysis, yielding a high completion rate of 96.3%. To maintain data integrity and analytical consistency, partially completed responses were excluded using listwise deletion.
Ethical Considerations
Risk Minimization and Benefits
The study design was carefully structured to minimize any risk of harm to participants. No sensitive or invasive questions were included, and procedures strictly adhered to ethical standards to safeguard participants’ dignity, privacy, and well-being. The potential benefits clearly outweighed the minimal risks: for participants, the study provided an opportunity to reflect on their religious practices in digital contexts; for society, it contributed to a deeper understanding of how faith communities adapt to technological change, generating knowledge relevant for theology, education, and social sciences (Table 1).
Sample.
Source. Author’s own compilation.
Sources of Measured Items
In this study, participants responded to each item using a 7-point Likert scale, where 1 indicated “strongly disagree” and 7 indicated “strongly agree.”Table 2 presents a summary of the measurement scales applied.
Sources of Measured Items.
Source. Author’s own compilation.
All the scales used were adapted from previously validated instruments in the academic literature. Each was translated into Spanish and carefully adapted to fit the specific context of this research, which focuses on participation in virtual Eucharists.
To assess Intrinsic Religious Motivation, the study employed the 16-item scale developed by Hoge (1972). Similarly, the same author’s 14-item scale was used to evaluate Extrinsic Religious Motivation. For Satisfaction, the 7-item scale proposed by Areiza-Padilla et al. (2022) based on the work of Larsen et al. (1979) was utilized. Lastly, to measure the Intention to Return to Online Eucharist, the study applied a 5-item scale drawn from Areiza-Padilla et al. (2022), which in turn adapted elements from Chang et al. (2020) and Udo et al. (2011).
These instruments were selected to reflect the assumption that parishioners may possess a range of intrinsic and extrinsic religious motivations, which can either encourage or discourage their participation in virtual Eucharistic celebrations via digital platforms. The adapted items are detailed in the table below.
Results
All statistical analyses were conducted using SmartPLS 4.0, employing the Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) approach. To assess the significance of the structural path coefficients, a non-parametric bootstrapping procedure with 5,000 resamples was applied, following established guidelines for robust inference. PLS-SEM, a technique widely used in the social sciences for its strong predictive capabilities, has been extensively validated in previous research (Barroso et al., 2009).
The analysis began with the validation of the measurement scales by assessing their reliability and validity, followed by the estimation of the structural model, through which the strength and significance of the relationships between the study variables were evaluated.
To validate the measurement model, a Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) was performed. Reliability was assessed through Cronbach’s alpha (α) and Composite Reliability (CR). All values exceeded the recommended threshold of .70, indicating adequate internal consistency (Thompson, 2004).
Convergent validity was assessed using the Average Variance Extracted (AVE), with all constructs exceeding the threshold of .50, as recommended by Fornell and Larcker (1981). These results confirm that the measurement items sufficiently capture the constructs they are intended to represent.
Table 3 presents the results for Cronbach’s α, Composite Reliability (CR), and AVE for each latent variable. Additionally, it provides a descriptive summary of the item-level statistics across all measurement scales. As shown, extrinsic motivation scores tend to be lower, while intrinsic motivation scores are comparatively higher, suggesting a stronger internalized religious commitment among respondents.
Reliability and Validity Results.
Note.α = Cronbach’s alpha; CR = Composite reliability; AVE = Average Variance Extracted.
Source. Author’s own compilation.
p < .01.
To establish discriminant validity, the Fornell–Larcker criterion was applied. The square root of the AVE for each construct was compared to its correlations with other constructs, and in all cases, the square root of AVE exceeded the corresponding inter-construct correlations, indicating adequate discriminant validity.
To assess discriminant validity, we applied both the Fornell–Larcker criterion and the Heterotrait–Monotrait Ratio (HTMT). As shown in Table 4, the square root of the AVE for each construct (diagonal values) exceeded its correlations with other constructs, confirming discriminant validity. In addition, all HTMT values were below the conservative threshold of .90, further supporting the distinctiveness of the constructs.
Fornell–Larcker Criterion.
Note. The bold values reported on the diagonal of table correspond to the square roots of the Average Variance Extracted (AVE). According to the Fornell–Larcker criterion, discriminant validity is established when these values exceed the inter-construct correlations. As shown, this condition is satisfied for all constructs, indicating adequate discriminant validity.
Following the recommendations of Henseler (2017), the structural model was estimated using PLS-SEM, and a bootstrapping procedure with 5,000 subsamples was conducted to assess the significance of the path coefficients.( Table 5).
Results of the Structural Model.
Note. R2 (Satisfaction) = 0.476; R2 (Intention to continue attending virtual Eucharistic in the Future) = 0.331; Q2 (Satisfaction) = 0.134; Q2 = (Intention to continue attending virtual Eucharistic in the Future) = 0.165.
Source. Author’s own compilation.
The results indicate that all path coefficients were statistically significant and aligned with the proposed directions of the four hypotheses. Thus, Hypotheses 1 (H1), 2 (H2), 3 (H3), and 4 (H4) were all supported by the data.
Effect sizes (Cohen’s f2) were computed to assess the magnitude of each predictor’s contribution to the structural model. The results were as follows: f2 = 0.09 for H1 (small), f2 = 0.04 for H2 (small), f2 = 0.07 for H3 (small), and f2 = 0.14 for H4 (approaching medium). Although all effects were statistically significant, these values suggest that the practical influence of the predictors ranged from small to moderate in magnitude.
Specifically, for H1, the relationship between Extrinsic Religious Motivation and Satisfaction with Online Eucharist was significant and negative (β = –.178; p < .001), confirming the hypothesis. Similarly, H2, which proposed a negative relationship between Extrinsic Religious Motivation and Intention to Attend Online Eucharist Again, was also confirmed (β = –.161; p < .001).
In contrast, H3 and H4, which proposed positive relationships between Intrinsic Religious Motivation and both Satisfaction and Intention to Return, respectively, were supported as well. The path coefficients were statistically significant: H3 (β = .176; p < .001) and H4 (β = .231; p < .001).
Confidence intervals at the 95% level for the structural path coefficients were estimated using a bootstrapping procedure. The results for each hypothesis were as follows: H1, β = –.178, 95% CI [–0.252, –0.097]; H2, β = –.161, 95% CI [–0.238, –0.082]; H3, β = .176, 95% CI [0.079, 0.229]; and H4, β = .231, 95% CI [0.158, 0.302]. These confidence intervals indicate that the estimated path coefficients are statistically significant and that the direction and strength of the relationships are robust within the specified confidence bounds.
To assess the explanatory power of the model, the R2 coefficients were examined. These coefficients indicate the proportion of variance explained in the endogenous constructs. According to Chin (1998), R 2 values above .30 are considered acceptable, although minimum values of .20 are still valid for exploratory research. The results of this study showed that all R2 values met or exceeded these thresholds, supporting the model’s explanatory adequacy.
In addition, the predictive relevance of the model was assessed using the Stone–Geisser Q2 test (Geisser, 1974; Stone, 1974). According to Chin (1998) and Hair et al. (2021), Q2 values greater than zero indicate that the model has predictive relevance. In this study, all Q2 values were positive and above zero, confirming the model’s predictive capability.
These findings resonate with the theological distinctions previously outlined in the section “Theological Nature of the Eucharist and the Limits of Virtual Participation.” As emphasized by the Catechism of the Catholic Church (§§1374, 1352–1353) and other official Church documents, the Eucharist is an ontologically real sacrament that necessitates physical presence. In this light, the lower levels of satisfaction and intention to return observed among extrinsically motivated parishioners may be interpreted as a consequence of the absence of the embodied, communal experience that is central to Eucharistic theology. Virtual participation may offer pastoral benefits, but it cannot replicate the full sacramental reality.
Discussion of Results
The results obtained in this study contribute meaningfully to the growing body of knowledge on religious innovation and virtual spiritual practices. Specifically, the findings reinforce established theoretical distinctions between intrinsic and extrinsic religious motivations, as conceptualized by Allport and Ross (1967), Kirkpatrick (1993), and Park (2021).
The positive associations observed between intrinsic motivation and both satisfaction (H3) and the intention to continue attending online Eucharistic celebrations (H4) highlight the importance of internalized faith as a stable and enduring source of spiritual engagement even when mediated by digital technology. These findings are consistent with prior research by Araújo et al. (2021) and Areiza-Padilla et al. (2022), which argue that intrinsic religiosity tends to promote the continuity of religious behaviors across different contexts and platforms.
In contrast, the negative relationships identified between extrinsic motivation and both satisfaction (H1) and intention to return (H2) suggest limitations in the ability of virtual environments to fulfill socially driven or instrumental religious needs. This observation aligns with Mesch and Talmud (2006), who emphasize the critical role of physical presence and social visibility in fostering meaningful religious experiences for extrinsically motivated individuals.
These findings extend prior research by Araújo et al. (2021) and Areiza-Padilla et al. (2022), confirming that intrinsic religiosity promotes continuity across contexts. However, unlike Nie (2019), who found no significant differences between intrinsic and extrinsic motivations in digital engagement, our study demonstrates a systematic divide. This suggests that contextual factors such as cultural traditions and the degree of media interactivity may explain divergent outcomes across settings. Hence, our results do not merely replicate established theory but refine it by revealing boundaries of generalizability in the psychology of digital religion
This interpretation aligns with the doctrinal understanding presented earlier, where virtual celebrations are framed as pastoral accommodations rather than sacramental equivalents. According to Ecclesia de Eucharistia (Paul, 2003, §10) and the document Let Us Return to the Eucharist with Joy (Congregation for Divine Worship and the Discipline of the Sacraments, 2020), spiritual communion via digital platforms cannot substitute the ontological efficacy of the Eucharist celebrated in physical presence. The absence of tangible sacramental participation may partially explain the psychological distance and lower engagement reported by extrinsically motivated individuals.
Moreover, the strength of the model evidenced by satisfactory R2 and Q2 values supports the explanatory and predictive capacity of the proposed relationships, reinforcing the relevance of the theoretical framework in understanding digital religious behavior. These results suggest that online liturgies may be particularly effective for believers whose faith practices are grounded in personal conviction rather than external validation.
Theoretical and practical implications arise from these findings, especially for the Catholic Church and other religious institutions striving to adapt to ongoing digital transformations. Understanding parishioners' motivational profiles can inform more personalized and effective approaches to designing both online and offline religious services.
These results also align with Self-Determination Theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 2000), which posits that intrinsic motivation supports deeper and more enduring forms of engagement. Parishioners driven by internalized faith report greater satisfaction with online Eucharistic participation, regardless of the platform. On the other hand, Media Richness Theory (MRT) (Daft & Lengel, 1986) helps explain the comparatively lower satisfaction levels among extrinsically motivated parishioners. Digital platforms may lack the sensory, interpersonal, and immediate feedback cues that extrinsically motivated individuals rely on to fulfill their spiritual and social expectations.
Although these findings are consistent with Araújo et al. (2021), they differ from those of Nie (2019), who found no significant differences in engagement levels between intrinsically and extrinsically motivated believers when using highly interactive digital platforms. This discrepancy suggests that media interactivity may play a mediating role in shaping satisfaction, highlighting an area for further exploration.
While SDT provides a strong foundation for understanding motivation types, it may not fully account for hybrid or culturally contextualized motivations shaped by technological adaptation or evolving spiritual identities. Similarly, MRT emphasizes the structural aspects of communication but may neglect the symbolic, emotional, and transcendent dimensions that characterize religious rituals, which can significantly influence perceived satisfaction.
Interestingly, some extrinsically motivated participants reported unexpectedly high levels of satisfaction with online Eucharist. While this may appear inconsistent with MRT, it could be explained by the symbolic power of digital religious belonging and social reinforcement through platforms like social media. These findings suggest that under certain conditions, extrinsic motivation when bolstered by visible and socially shared digital rituals can generate satisfaction levels comparable to those of traditional religious settings.
Conclusions
Theoretical Contributions
This study contributes to the growing field of digital religion by demonstrating how psychological, communication, and theological frameworks can be integrated to explain Catholic parishioners’ engagement with online Eucharist. The results confirm that intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are not only statistically significant predictors of satisfaction and intention to continue attending virtual liturgies but also embody distinct psychological logics that can be understood through Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and Media Richness Theory (MRT).
From an SDT perspective, the positive effect of intrinsic motivation is consistent with the idea that internalized values provide autonomy, resilience, and sustained commitment across different contexts. Parishioners whose religiosity is intrinsically motivated view participation in the Eucharist whether in person or online not as a matter of convenience but as a fundamental expression of faith. This explains their ability to adapt to digital formats without a significant loss of meaning. The results thereby extend SDT into the domain of religious innovation, showing that intrinsic motivation can act as a stabilizing force in times of institutional and technological change.
By contrast, the negative relationship between extrinsic motivation and online Eucharistic participation aligns with the principles of MRT. The theory suggests that media differ in their richness, defined by the extent to which they can transmit multiple cues, enable feedback, and approximate face-to-face interaction. Online liturgies, although accessible and convenient, lack the embodied cues, communal presence, and sensory richness that extrinsically motivated individuals rely upon to achieve social validation or emotional security. In this sense, the results extend MRT beyond business and education into the religious domain, illustrating how limitations in media richness undermine the experiences of those whose motivations are externally driven.
Finally, theological perspectives add another interpretive layer. Catholic doctrine affirms that the Eucharist is ontologically tied to physical presence and sacramental mediation. The results confirm this theological stance by showing that extrinsic motivations closely tied to visible and embodied aspects of ritual are poorly sustained in digital contexts. These contributions also position the study within broader debates on secularization versus digital reconfiguration of religion. Rather than confirming secularization theories that predict decline through modernization, our findings indicate a transformation: intrinsic religiosity adapts and persists through digital channels. This supports perspectives that argue for a reconfiguration of religious practice in contemporary societies, where technological mediation serves as a new, rather than diminished, locus of spiritual continuity.
Empirical Findings
Empirically, this study provides one of the first systematic analyses of Catholic parishioners’ motivations to participate in online Eucharist in a Latin American context. The data confirm that intrinsic motivation fosters satisfaction and continuity, whereas extrinsic motivation undermines both outcomes. These results lend empirical support to long-standing theoretical distinctions in the psychology of religion, but in a novel setting: digital liturgy.
The findings are also enriched by the demographic profile of the sample. A large majority of participants were over 36 years old, with a particularly high concentration of individuals aged 56 or older. This age distribution suggests that online Eucharist resonated strongly with those most vulnerable to health risks and mobility limitations, thereby highlighting its pastoral utility. At the same time, the gender distribution, with women comprising nearly two-thirds of the sample, reflects broader patterns of female religiosity and participation in Latin America. These sociodemographic characteristics not only contextualize the results but also suggest that motivational dynamics cannot be fully understood in isolation from demographic factors.
Media usage provides another empirical dimension. Television was the dominant medium, followed by digital conferencing platforms and social media. This pattern highlights generational divides: older participants preferred passive and familiar formats such as television, while younger and more technologically adept participants favored interactive platforms like Zoom or YouTube. These patterns suggest that the intersection of motivation, age, gender, and technological familiarity significantly influences satisfaction and continuity. Empirically, then, the study contributes to a more nuanced picture of digital worship by demonstrating how individual motivations interact with structural and demographic variables to shape religious engagement.
Practical and Institutional Implications
The findings carry important implications for religious institutions as they navigate the digital transformation of worship. First, the fact that intrinsically motivated parishioners sustain engagement in digital contexts suggests that online Eucharist can serve as a complementary pastoral tool, particularly for populations with limited mobility or high health risks. Churches can design digital strategies that support spiritual continuity for such groups, ensuring inclusivity while respecting theological boundaries.
Second, the negative effect of extrinsic motivation reveals the limits of digital formats. Parishioners who view religion as a means to achieve social standing or emotional support may find little satisfaction in virtual Masses, where visibility and embodied presence are minimal. This underscores the need for hybrid worship models, which combine in-person and online elements. For example, live-streaming in-person Masses, while maintaining opportunities for community recognition and participation, could help reconcile the needs of extrinsically motivated parishioners with the accessibility of digital platforms.
Third, platform selection matters. Television appeals strongly to older generations, while interactive platforms may engage younger parishioners. Churches should adopt a multi-platform strategy that accommodates varying levels of technological literacy, ensuring that digital worship does not unintentionally exclude certain groups. At the same time, attention should be paid to the risks of digital fatigue and the potential trivialization of sacred rituals when mediated through commercial social media platforms.
Beyond pastoral strategies, the findings also point to broader social and policy implications. Given that the majority of participants were older parishioners, the results underscore the need for inclusive digital policies that promote technological literacy among elderly populations. Public-private collaboration between religious institutions, governments, and civil society could ensure that online worship becomes a tool of social cohesion rather than exclusion. Designing hybrid worship models supported by inclusive policy frameworks may enhance accessibility, mitigate digital divides, and safeguard the cultural relevance of religion in increasingly digital societies.
Religious leaders, pastoral agents, and policymakers must therefore design inclusive strategies that balance accessibility, theological integrity, and the motivational diversity of faith communities.
Limitations and Future Research
Like any empirical study, this research has limitations that point to opportunities for further inquiry. The use of a convenience sample of Catholic parishioners in Bogotá limits the generalizability of the findings. Future research should expand to include other Catholic populations across Latin America and beyond, as well as different Christian denominations, to assess whether doctrinal variations influence the motivational dynamics identified here.
Generational dynamics warrant deeper exploration. While this study suggests that older parishioners are more inclined toward digital Eucharist, systematic multi-group analyses could reveal how motivations differ across age cohorts, providing a more precise understanding of generational variations in digital religiosity. Similarly, cross-cultural studies comparing Latin America, Europe, and North America would shed light on how cultural context shapes perceptions of virtual liturgy.
Another avenue for future research is the exploration of non-Christian religions. Faiths such as Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism have distinct ritual logics and theological frameworks that may interact differently with digital mediation. Comparative studies across religions could illuminate whether the motivational dynamics identified here are unique to Catholicism or whether they represent broader patterns of digital religiosity.
Finally, future studies should adopt more sophisticated quantitative and qualitative approaches, including longitudinal designs, to assess how digital worship practices evolve over time. Such research could clarify whether virtual Eucharist represents a temporary adaptation or a permanent shift in religious life.
Footnotes
Ethical Considerations
All ethical procedures related to data collection, informed consent, and participant confidentiality were thoroughly reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of Pontificia Universidad Javeriana (approval code FCEA-DF-0092-2021), granted in April 2021.
Consent to Participate
Each participant was required to sign a written form of informed consent. All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations.
Consent for Publication
All authors have approved the submission and publication of the current manuscript.
Author Contributions
All authors contributed significantly to every aspect of the reported work, including concept design, study design, implementation, data collection, analysis, and interpretation. They also participated in the drafting, revision, and critical review of the article. Each author gave final approval to the version to be published and has approved the journal to which this article was submitted. Additionally, they agree to be responsible for all aspects of the work carried out.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Data Availability Statement
The dataset that supports the findings of this study is available from the authors upon reasonable request.