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Abstract

There is limited information concerning the experiences and career decision-making processes of male sex workers in South Korea. The aim of this study was to understand the motivations, career decisions, and decision-making processes of a group of male university students and graduates who decided to join the sex work profession in South Korea as part of their career development. Qualitative research design and snowball strategies were employed in 2021 with nine male sex workers. Interview sessions, online focus group activity, remarkable items sharing, and member-checking interview sessions were undertaken to collect rich stories and promote understanding of male sex workers who are completing or have completed their bachelor’s degrees in South Korea. Based on the social cognitive career and motivation theory, three main themes were highlighted: (1) financial consideration, (2) personal interest in sexual activities, and (3) limited career opportunities for the younger generation. The findings illustrate the motivations of a group of educated male sex workers and the social issues for sex workers in South Korea. Government bodies, policymakers, and non-profit organizations may use this study as a reference for policy development and human resources schemes.

Plain Language Summary

The sex work profession is one of the oldest vocational and career pathways in human society. As more than 80% of current sex workers are women, it is important to understand the motivations of a group of male university students and university graduates in deciding to enter the sex work profession in South Korea as they are considered under-researched groups in the community. This study seeks to understand the motivations, career decisions, and decision-making processes of a group of male sex workers in South Korea who are completing or have completed their bachelor’s degrees. Interview sessions, online focus group activity, remarkable items sharing, and member-checking interview sessions were undertaken to collect rich stories and promote understanding of male sex workers who are completing or have completed their bachelor’s degrees in South Korea. Based on the social cognitive career and motivation theory, three main themes were highlighted: (1) financial consideration, (2) personal interest in sexual activities, and (3) limited career opportunities for the younger generation. The findings illustrate the motivations of a group of educated male sex workers and the social issues for sex workers in South Korea. Government bodies, policymakers, and non-profit organizations may use this study as a reference for policy development and human resources schemes.

Keywords

career decision decision-making process male sex worker prostitute social cognitive career and motivation theory South Korea

Introduction

The sex work profession is one of the oldest vocational and career pathways in human society (Butrica, 2005; Wahab, 2002). Currently, a number of countries worldwide regulate and permit sex work while criminalizing aspects around it (Roth & Wang, 2020). Many countries and regions continue to ban sex work for any purpose, particularly in the East Asian region (e.g., China, South Korea, Taiwan). Although policymakers and government leaders disagree with the sex work profession, the demand for sex workers is significant, particularly in countries and regions where tourism and entertainment are the major professions (Spurrier, 2020).

There are no official statistics and reports for the population of sex workers, but it is estimated that there are around 40 to 42 million prostitutes globally (Lubin, 2012). More than 80% of the sex workers are women between the ages of 13 to 25. According to Havocscope (2015), the following are the top 10 countries for sex worker populations: China (5 million), India (3 million), the United States (1 million), the Philippines (800,000), Mexico (500,000), Germany (400,000), Brazil (250,000 children), Thailand (250,000), and South Korea (147,000). Havocscope (2015) also states that $186 billion USD is spent each year on the sex trade internationally, while over 10 million women work as regular prostitutes. Havocscope gives the top 10 countries with the greatest revenue from sex work as China ($73 million), Spain ($26.5), Japan ($24 billion), Germany ($18 billion), the United States ($14.6), South Korea ($12 billion), India ($8.4 million), Thailand ($6.4 million), the Philippines ($6 million), and Turkey ($4 million). As many countries and regions have not legalized sex work, much of this revenue goes through the black market without taxable payment to the government (Subramanian, 2018).

Health Concerns for Sex Workers

Many people believe that only female sex workers work in this profession; however, male sex workers also join and enter the profession for both the short-term and long-term (Minichiello et al., 2021). About 20% of males work as sexual workers internationally (Havocscope, 2015). However, most current studies (Tan & Melendez-Torres, 2016) have focused on female sex workers’ rights, health, and psychological well-being, particularly regarding STD safety, sexual activities, condom use, and kidnapping. Issues other than STDs and HIV/AIDS concerning male sex workers have been largely neglected. Many studies (Nguyen et al., 2019; Pillay et al., 2020; Selvey et al., 2019) indicate that the public tends to stigmatize sex workers as carriers of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and HIV/AIDS (Parsons et al., 2018). Although STDs and HIV/AIDS do not have direct connections to sex, both male and female sex workers should equally receive help and support from government leaders and non-profit organizations, and this study aims to fill the gap in this area (Baral et al., 2014).

Motivations, Career Decisions, and Decision-Making Processes of Sex Workers

Sexual orientation and gender have become research topics regarding motivation, career decisions, and decision-making processes. A recent study (Tatum, 2018) argued that sexual orientation and gender could limit career development and promotion and might lead to turnover or attrition, particularly among the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and questioning (LGBTQ) populations. A previous study (Minichiello et al., 2013) argued that the internet and the changing understanding of sexuality had impacted the career decisions and decision-making processes of male sex workers internationally. Although both male and female individuals work in the sex work profession, their workplace environments and social understanding are not similar. A study (Baral et al., 2014) indicated that female sex workers join the profession due to social pressure and demands of the community, while male sex workers join the profession due to their social context. For example, a previous study (Closson et al., 2015) indicated that male sex workers tended to join the sex work profession due to financial and economic considerations. More importantly, unlike some female sex workers who might be forced to join the sex work profession (Jung, 2012), many male sex workers joined the sex work profession based on their own decisions. In other words, the career decisions and decision-making processes between men and women may differ due to discrimination and social stigma (Minichiello et al., 2013), as the general public members have already established the social norms based on the gender roles of these two groups of people.

Sex Work Profession and Problems in South Korea

What about the challenges and problems of male sex workers in South Korea? The human rights and opinions of sex workers were addressed in 2004 based on the anti-prostitution law. However, the results of the law and government policies did not favor sex workers (Gaphee, 2006b). Under this law, sex work and sex workers were categorized as incorrect behaviors, illegal workers, and immoral individuals. No unions, government agencies, and non-profit organizations could offer help and protection as they were known as the neglected individuals and groups in the South Korean communities, regardless of their gender and social roles. Over the past few decades, some non-profit organizations have fought for the human rights of female sex workers who have argued that rights for decades. However, due to the social level, social stigma, and discrimination (Cha et al., 2007) against sex workers (i.e., in all genders), no positive outcomes were found.

More importantly, in South Korean communities, individuals and groups tended to believe that sex workers should be women, as the South Korean people do not believe men should be worked in the sex work profession. Under this social stigma and understanding, no human rights protection and non-profit organizations were here to help male sex workers under many circumstances. More importantly, a previous study (J. Lee, 2010) further argued that sex workers (i.e., both men and women) could be immigrants from foreign countries who may or may not have valid visas for their current occupation. If sex workers experience bullying and discrimination, many decide not to disclose the situation to any forced departments and social welfare organizations for help. As a result, more hidden cases and problems could be found under some complex cases (J. Lee, 2008). Furthermore, the social media platforms and online porn industries have expanded the need for online videos and sex workers in the South Korean environment (Joohee & Chang, 2021; Y. M. Lee & Lee, 2021). However, only a few regulations can protect and help the victims of the sex work profession. Based on traditional East Asian thinking, sex workers are less likely to express their voices, demands, and human rights in front of the camera due to the social stigma and discrimination.

The Impact of Technology Developments, Social Media, and Decision-Making Processes

Previously, sex workers needed to join a company, rent a space, or share profits with the pimps to be able to promote their sex services to customers on the street (Garcia et al., 2017). Since the development of the internet and online dating cellphone applications, many sex workers now join the profession online working as freelancers. A recent study (Kuhar & Pajnik, 2019) indicated that online technology has allowed male sex workers to find customers via an online platform instead of through a physical store. Consequently, sex workers no longer need to share their profits with other shareholders over spaces and promotions (Garcia et al., 2017). A recent study (Callander et al., 2021) indicated that although the male sex work profession appeared to be reduced on the streets during the COVID-19 pandemic, online and internet-based sexual services significantly increased due to social distancing recommendations and lockdown requirements. Many individuals (without connections to chain sex work organizations) can join the sex work profession without costs or requirements, regardless of age, gender, location, or financial and educational background (Callander et al., 2021).

The convenience of technology and dating cellphone applications has increased access to the sex work profession for freelancers. Although sex work is not legal in South Korea, the government has not banned them or internet and online-based sex work services (Gaphee, 2006a). Sex work and services have a long history in South Korea, regardless of gender and activities (Cheng, 2013).

According to a recent report from the South Korean Ministry of Gender Equality and Family, 74.8% of teenagers have contacted and had sex chats and conversations with sex workers through the internet and cellphone dating applications (Y. Lee et al., 2019). Although the South Korean government has banned a large number of sexually oriented cellphone applications, some were able to use general chats and social media applications and websites for sexually oriented communications.

In 2018, the nth room scandal impacted the sex work and social media communities in South Korea concerning digital sex crimes, particularly underage porn images and videos (Joohee & Chang, 2021). The nth room scandal is a criminal case involving cybersex crimes. The pictures and videos of more than 103 individuals (i.e., both men and women), including at least 26 underage individuals, were sent and shared to at least 60,000 users online as paid cybersex services. The scandal significantly indicated concerns about human rights and protections for all individuals, including sex workers (i.e., both men and women) in South Korea. Furthermore, Y. M. Lee and Lee (2021) argue that almost anyone, regardless of gender and background, can join digital and online-based sex chat rooms as viewers and service providers, without restriction. Although the sexual scandals and crimes had no connections to the LGBTQ community, some may blame gay and bisexual people and groups due to their unique backgrounds and status (J. A. Lee et al., 2021).

Social Stigma and Male Sex Workers

Social stigma refers to disapproval or dislike of individuals and groups due to their social and biological characteristics (Goffman, 1963). The majority members of communities and societies may categorize and label minorities, giving them unique status (Said, 1978). Cultural background, language, skin color, illness, nationality, gender, sexual orientation, occupation, religious practice, personal belief, personal understanding, and education are common factors that can be used in social stigma (Tajfel, 2010; Tajfel & Turner, 1979). The personal beliefs, self-efficacy, self-identity, and self-esteem of minority groups can be impacted due to social stigma. In some situations, minorities can experience stress, burnout, depression, and psychological problems due to social stigma and discrimination from other people (Frost, 2020).

Gender and sexual orientation are two major aspects of social stigma (Christie, 2021; Wagner et al., 2016). A recent study (Nguyen et al., 2019) indicated that members of the public often have misunderstandings toward gay and bisexual men regarding unprotected sexual activities and STDs. Although studies (Callander et al., 2021; Haruna et al., 2018; Parsons et al., 2018) have indicated no differences in STDs between genders, many people continue to discriminate against and stigmatize gay and bisexual men, particularly in East Asia, due to the historical, socio-cultural, and political factors (Blanc, 2004; Chen, 2009; Gaphee, 2006b; Jung, 2012, 2013; Y. G. Kim & Hahn, 2006; Pachauri, 2011). For decades, South Korean society has tended to believe HIV/AIDS issues were largely related to gay and bisexual men’s communities. In 2012, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention in South Korea (Sohn & Cho, 2012) conducted a study on knowledge, attitudes, and sexual behavior around HIV/AIDS issues and the use of condoms by gay and bisexual men. Furthermore, on-street promotions and marketing strategies provide challenges to sex workers as their images and pictures could be publicly exposed. Misunderstanding and social stigma has continued to impact the experiences and sense-making processes of sex workers (Cheng, 2013).

Unlike western countries, in South Korea, sex work and topics for sex workers are still considered taboo in most public and private environments, including schools, universities, health centers, and the family (Cheng, 2013). Y. Lee et al. (2019) argue that South Korean teenagers learn sex knowledge from the internet, social media, friends, and porn videos, many of which may contain incorrect information. As a result, adolescents, young adults, and mid-age adults continue to absorb incorrect knowledge. Such incorrect information may be harmful to the next generation without the provision of effective sex education courses and training (K. R. Shin et al., 2011).

The study indicated that issues around HIV/AIDS significantly impacted the well-being of men who have sex with men (MSM). However, the study itself reiterated the problem of social stigma, as many people believe HIV/AIDS to be an issue for MSM and sexual minorities (S. R. Shin et al., 2007). As the South Korean government, educational institutions, and non-profit organizations continue to offer misleading information to the public and the younger generation, the social stigma against sex workers remains.

Purpose of the Study

This study seeks to understand the motivations, career decisions, and decision-making processes of a group of male sex workers in South Korea who are completing or have completed their bachelor’s degrees. As more than 80% of current sex workers are women and forced laborers without choice in their career pathways (Havocscope, 2015), it is important to understand the motivations of a group of male university students and university graduates in deciding to enter the sex work profession in South Korea. Based on the social cognitive career and motivation theory (Dos Santos, 2021) and the social stigma theory (Goffman, 1963), the current study was guided by a research question:

(1) Why do South Korean male university students and university graduates decide to join the sex work profession as their career pathway?

Theoretical Framework

The Social Cognitive Career and Motivation Theory

The social cognitive career and motivation theory (Dos Santos, 2021) has developed from the social cognitive career theory (Lent et al., 1994; Lent & Brown, 1996) and self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1989). First of all, the self-efficacy theory indicates that individuals’ capacities and achievements could be impacted by experience, vicarious experience, social persuasion, and physiological feedback. The relationships between these four elements and the individual’s self-efficacy would further impact the behaviors and performance for the targeted tasks. Under this umbrella, if the individual has strong self-efficacy, it is more likely that the individual may perform and achieve his/her goals successfully. In other words, if the individual does not have a high level of self-efficacy, a low level of confidence may reduce the potential of the participants (Bandura, 1982; Kwee, 2021).

The social cognitive career theory (Lent et al., 1994; Lent & Brown, 1996) was developed based on the guideline from the self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1989). Under the social cognitive career theory, the researchers employed self-efficacy and the relevant elements as the means to understand and investigate the career decisions of individuals. Under the social cognitive career theory (Brown & Lent, 2019), learning experiences, self-efficacy of expectations, and outcome expectations were categorized as the important elements. However, the social cognitive career theory did not indicate the relationships between the internal factors and external factors, particularly how characteristics of the factors based on the motivations, reasons, and decision-making processes (Dos Santos, 2021). Therefore, based on these two theories (i.e., self-efficacy theory and social cognitive career theory), the social cognitive career and motivation theory was developed to address the investigation and relationship of individuals’ motivations, reasons, and decision-making processes, particularly under the lens of career decisions (Dos Santos, 2021).

The social cognitive career and motivation theory (Dos Santos, 2021) argues that individuals’ career decisions and decision-making processes are impacted by two factors. First, the psychological and internal factors with self-efficacy (i.e., internal factors) refer to the relationships and motivations between personal understanding, background, previous stories, and career decision-making processes. Three sub-factors were identified in the study (Dos Santos, 2021): (1) academic interests, (2) personal considerations, and (3) achievements of education and career goals. Second, social and external factors (i.e., external factors) refer to the relationships and motivations between social context, peer influence, and career decision-making processes. Three sub-factors were identified (Dos Santos, 2021): (1) interests in career development, (2) financial considerations, and (3) the surrounding environment and individuals.

Materials and Methods

The interpretative phenomenological analysis (Smith et al., 2009) was employed to collect qualitative data from nine participants who are currently working as male sex workers in South Korea. The interpretative phenomenological analysis is useful because the researchers tended to seek in-depth data, such as the motivations, career decisions, and decision-making processes of a small group of participants. Unlike the traditional phenomenological approach, interpretative phenomenological analysis studies usually understand the in-depth social world and sense-making processes of a social problem. With a small group of participants, the study could capture the interesting stories and experiences of a group of minorities, in this case, educated male sex workers in South Korea.

The purposive sampling strategy (Merriam, 2009) was employed to collect qualitative data from nine male sex workers in South Korea. First, the researchers contacted the 12 male sex workers who are currently working in the sex work profession via a non-profit organization. After several rounds of discussions, only nine participants were willing to join the study. Second, the researchers sent the email invitation, research protocol, questions, content form, and risk statement to the participants. All signed and returned to the researcher via email. Third, the researchers contacted the participants and arranged for the data collection procedure. Based on the nature of this study, the participants must meet all the following criteria,

Currently working as a male sex worker

Work in the sex work profession for at least 6 months

Plan to stay in the sex work profession

Completing or completed their bachelor’s degree as university students or university graduates

Willing to share their stories for the academic research study

Adult and non-vulnerable people

Interview sessions, online focus group activity, remarkable items sharing (e.g., pictures, clothing, physical items etc.), and member-checking interview sessions were used to collect in-depth qualitative data from the participants. First, the researchers contacted each participant and arranged the face-to-face and semi-structured interview session in a private and one-on-one location. Second, after all participants completed the interview sessions, all participants were invited to an online-based focus group activity to share their stories and experiences. Third, after the researchers categorized the stories and experiences based on each participant’s personal file, the researcher sent the data to each appropriate participant. The online-based member-checking interviews were conducted in order to confirm the data. During the abovementioned data collection procedure, the participants were allowed to bring some remarkable items for further discussion and development. Please note, during the data collection procedure, a digital recorder was used to record the voiced message. No visual images or videos were taken. All participants agreed with the arrangements.

A two-step data analysis procedure was used to analyze the massive qualitative data to meaningful themes and subthemes (Strauss & Corbin, 1990; Thomas, 2006). First, the open-coding technique was used to narrow down the qualitative data to different groups and directions. From this step, the researchers categorized 10 themes and 12 subthemes. Second, the axial-coding technique was employed to narrow down the themes and subthemes. As a result, three themes and four subthemes were yielded.

The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and the protocol was supported by Woosong University Academic Research Department. Privacy is the most important factor of this study. Therefore, the researchers tried their best to protect the privacy of all parties. The signed consent forms, research protocol, voiced messages, written transcripts, personal contacts, images of the remarkable items, computers, and relevant materials were all stored in a password-protected cabinet. Only the researchers could read the materials. After the researchers completed the study, the researchers deleted and destroyed the materials immediately in order to protect privacy. All the human subjects were informed of their rights and consent before the data collection procedure.

Results and Discussions

Although the male sex workers’ network is not large in South Korea, many participants are unaware of each other. However, many shared similar stories, career decisions, decision-making processes, and experiences, particularly regarding the transition from a university student or university graduate to a male sex worker. Table 1 outlines the themes and subthemes based on the qualitative data from the participants.

Table 1.

Themes and Subthemes.

Themes and subthemes
4.1.	Financial Considerations
	4.1.1.	I Could Not Afford my Living Expenses in the City
	4.1.2.	I Want to Become a Porn Star and Sell Videos Online
4.2.	Personal Interests in Sexual Activities
	4.2.1.	I Could Try Different Sex Partners at No Cost
4.3.	Limited Career Opportunities for the Younger Generation
	4.3.1.	I Could not See my Future with a Bachelor’s Degree: Freelancers

Financial Considerations

…I attended a private university…I could not get a scholarship because my grades were not good…I have already spent all the money…from my parents…I have to take care of myself…because my university major is in humanities…I could not find any jobs…that can match my degree…because I still need to eat…my body is my last chance… (Participant #4, Graduate)

…I could not miss the student loan payment…if I miss it, the negative credit history will destroy my future…I could not apply for bank mortgages, credit cards, and even job applications…I need to pay back my loan…but I have no way anymore…(Participant #1, Graduate)

In line with the social cognitive career and motivation theory (Dos Santos, 2021; Lent et al., 1994; Lent & Brown, 1996), participants shared their stories of the relationship between university tuition fees, loans, and living costs. South Korea is a developed region of East Asia, and many young people seek a university education. One participant stated, “I want to study in Seoul, the capital city, but I don’t have money…sex work is my only opportunity…” (Participant #4, Graduate). However, tuition fees have become one of the biggest concerns for these young people, particularly students attending private universities without a scholarship. According to a recent report (Yoon, 2022), in South Korea, there are 186 private universities, with 52 and 39 in Seoul and Gyeonggi Province, respectively. Although not all students attend private universities in South Korea, living costs in urban and suburban regions have been increasing over the past few years. All participants said that they decided to join and enter the sex work profession due to the high living costs and student loan payments in South Korea, echoing a recent study by Simpson and Smith (2019).

I Could Not Afford My Living Expenses in the City

Youth poverty is not uncommon in South Korea. A recent study (J. Kim & Yoo, 2021) indicated that living and housing costs in South Korea are not affordable for many people, particularly young and single individuals who need to live in the metropolitan region. Currently, more than 30% of the income of people in South Korea goes into paying rent. For those living in the metropolitan region, the percentage increases significantly (Park, 2022). However, the salaries of recent university graduates have not increased in line with inflation, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic. The younger generation, university students, and recent university graduates are unable to afford the high living costs in the metropolitan region. All nine participants shared their concerns regarding living expenses and their career decisions. Two stories were captured:

…I want to finish my university education…but I don’t know…how can I make money for my living?…I don’t want to ask my parents…because I still have two brothers…two high schoolers…I used to work as a restaurant server…but the salary could not cover the rental fee and tuition fee…I still need to go to school in the morning and finish homework in the afternoon…sex worker is the only job that I can do at night…(Participant #6, University Student)

…because my school is in downtown Seoul…I could not move to other provinces…just because of my rental fee…the transportation fee is high if I live an hour away…I could only rent a room in the city…I tried to work as a salesperson…but I was fired because of COVID-19…I worked in the restaurant…but no customers…I had to leave…my last chance… sex worker…I can make some money to cover my rental fee…(Participant #7, University Student)

Another group of participants also indicated that they have to live in the downtown region and high-class buildings in order to attract potential customers. All the participants used their living unit for their sex work, thereby incurring no additional studio rental fees or shared profits. A story was captured reflecting this:

…my unit is my workshop…I don’t need to rent a room from the massage studio…but I need to rent a new building with an elevator…customers are willing to go to these nice buildings…if the buildings are very old…some customers may think…this is spam…and report my telephone number to the police station…(Participant #2, Graduate)

In line with the social cognitive career and motivation theory (Dos Santos, 2021; Lent et al., 1994; Lent & Brown, 1996), tuition fees, student loans, and living costs lie behind the participants’ motivations and reasons in joining the sex work profession. Previous studies (Motyl, 2013; Simpson & Smith, 2019) have also indicated that students and teenagers decide to join the sex work profession due to financial challenges. Although many participants expressed their disappointment and confusion regarding their current occupation, they were unable to quit their job due to their financial concerns.

I Want to Become a Porn Star and Sell Videos Online

Shareholders of sex videos, porn, and sex products can earn huge profits online. Over the past few years, many sex video websites and social media platforms have allowed individuals to post sex videos and porn for profit-making purposes (Ruberg, 2016). Although the South Korean government has restricted internet access to some international sex video websites, South Koreans continue to watch and subscribe to different international sex websites for paid and non-paid services (Choi et al., 2017). In this study, all participants indicated that they post self-created videos and porn on websites for profit-making purposes. An interesting story was captured:

…many people can make a lot of money online from their sex videos…I do not mind sharing my body with people…who can pay the money…I want to be very famous in South Korea and on social media…I cannot become a K-pop star…I can become a porn star instead…and make enough money for my house and education…(Participant #9, University Student)

In line with the social cognitive career and motivation theory (Dos Santos, 2021; Lent et al., 1994; Lent & Brown, 1996), Korean popular culture and developments in the entertainment industry have led many youths to want to become stars and actors. The participants of this study decided to join the sex work profession and post their videos and porn online for earnings and shows. A recent study (Jones, 2020) found that some gay South Koreans sent their self-created porn to the internet and porn websites to enhance their personal reputation and earnings. The behavior of the participants in our survey confirms the findings from this previous study.

Personal Interests in Sexual Activities

Previous studies (Gibbons & Borders, 2010; M. S. Kim & Seo, 2014) have indicated that individuals select their career developments and pathways based on their own interests and hobbies. In this study, all nine participants indicated that sexual activity was their hobby. Two participants were involved in romantic relationships, but indicated they were available for a open gay relationship (Jones, 2020). The researchers captured the following stories from the perspective of personal interest in sexual activities:

…I joined the sex industry…because of my interests…no one forced me to join…I love sex and I want to have sex every day…but it is hard to have sex every day with my sex partner or romantic partner…my partners cannot satisfy my needs in sex…but if I join the sex industry…I can enjoy sex every day…because this is my job…if I don’t have physical customers, I can post my sex video online for money…(Participant #8, University Student)

Many participants also indicated that they need to have sexual intercourse or masturbation at least three times per day. Therefore, sex activities as a career pathway (such as posting sex videos online and working as sex worker) may satisfy their desires both for sex activities and financial concerns (Jones, 2020). In line with the social cognitive career and motivation theory (Dos Santos, 2021; Lent et al., 1994; Lent & Brown, 1996), both personal and financial considerations played significant roles in the career decisions, motivations, and decision-making processes of this group of participants. Many felt very positive and excited about joining the sex work profession because of their personal background and interests (Gall, 2007; Jones, 2020) and felt that their education background and status as university students or graduates would not limit their career decision-making processes.

I Could Try Different Sex Partners at No Cost

Although two participants have a romantic relationship, having multiple sex partners and customers does not impact their understanding of their current career developments and pathways. All nine participants indicated that they enjoy sexual activities with different sex partners and customers (Jones, 2020). Their careers as sex workers significantly satisfy their desires and personal interests. The participants further indicated that sex work would allow them to try different sex partners at no cost. A story was captured:

…I want to have sex with other people…I used to find some sex partners on the dating cellphone application…but I have my own studio now…I don’t need to find a sex partner…some customers contact me and we have sex together…people pay me the fee and I can use the money for the rental fee…(Participant #3, Graduate)

Almost all participants expressed that they could double their price and fee with condomless sexual activity, both physically and in online video services. For the physical services, the following story was captured:

…some customers love sexual activities without a condom…I am fine, but it needs to be charged at least double…I do not care about HIV/AIDS…I care if I do not have enough money for my living costs…I need to survive and save money for my life…I have already sold my body…I do not see that my educational background will change any of my decisions…(Participant #5, Graduate)

Regarding online video services and aspects, a participant stated:

…some customers like to share our sex activity videos to the online channel…but I also charge the same prices for the condomless service…sometimes…I can have three customers per day…I am happy with the money…and my customers are happy with my service…because they also want to try new sex partners…my background as a university student is very attractive to some customers…(Participant #9, University Student)

In line with the social cognitive career and motivation theory (Dos Santos, 2021; Lent et al., 1994; Lent & Brown, 1996), personal need and desire for sexual activities and multiple sex partners were significant in the participants’ career decisions and decision-making processes. One important point captured from the stories was that many participants felt that their personal desires, such as becoming entertainment stars, outweighed their own health and safety. Reflecting on a previous study (Shannon & Csete, 2010), many felt that HIV/AIDS infection, violence, and bullying did not impact their desire to make money. The findings of the current study outline the way male sex workers describe their career decisions and decision-making processes in South Korea, particularly under financial necessity and sexual tendencies.

Limited Career Opportunities for the Younger Generation

Over the past decade, the South Korean government and local South Korean organizations have promoted the entertainment industry as one of the main directions for economic development. Many young South Korean people want to join the entertainment industry for potential career development (Edwards et al., 2015; G. S. Han, 2015; B. Han, 2017; Tatum, 2018). All the participants had tried to join a singing training team for the entertainment industry, but this had not led to work. As many had already spent money and savings on the training, they needed to make money. As many are recent graduates or university students, after careful consideration, they saw the sex work profession as their solution (Gaphee, 2006b; Jung, 2013; J. Lee, 2010). A story was captured regarding entering the entertainment industry:

…I want to become a famous singer…I tried to join the training and singing competition…but I had no luck…but if I can post my sex video online…I can still become very famous…but in the sex industry…I want to become a porn star in Korea…why not? I can make money, and I can become a famous star too…

In line with the social cognitive career and motivation theory (Dos Santos, 2021; Lent et al., 1994; Lent & Brown, 1996), many participants participated in entertainment competitions before joining the sex work profession. However, none of them succeeded in becoming stars, singers, or movie actors. Reflecting the work of Jones (2020), participants saw the sex work profession and becoming a porn star as an alternative to becoming famous and a way of earning an income.

I Could Not See My Future With a Bachelor’s Degree: Freelancers From the Social Media

All participants were university students or recent graduates from the university. Although they were well-prepared for potential career developments and jobs with educational backgrounds, many were unable to find long-term jobs and positions (Yi & Kim, 2020). The job market has been significantly impacted by the lockdown, social distancing recommendations, and travel restrictions of the COVID-19 pandemic. Many South Korean people lost their jobs due to the closure of many private business companies (Dang & Viet Nguyen, 2021), and this was reflected in the participants’ concerns regarding their income, career developments, opportunities, and long-term plans. Some studies indicated that many individuals started their own social media channels and websites as freelance influencers, and in the study, the participants also wanted to start their own sex work studios and establish their own porn channels for income. As the following indicates:

…if I cannot find any jobs…I can start my YouTube channel as an online YouTuber…but I do not have any skills or what…my hobby is sexual activities and having sex with other people…I know there are porn websites for people who want to post their videos online…why don’t I start my own channel in the sex industry…it is the same with different audiences…

…many people love to watch sex videos everyday…I love it too, and I want to share my sexual activities with other people…I cannot join the singing and entertainment industry…why don’t I join the sex industry and make money for my own living…I can become a famous educated porn star with scientific knowledge of Korea…

In line with the social cognitive career and motivation theory (Dos Santos, 2021; Lent et al., 1994; Lent & Brown, 1996), many participants could not see their future due to the economic downturn (Dang & Viet Nguyen, 2021). Although many had already completed and finished their degrees, they could not see any potential career opportunities. Seeing the rapid development of the freelancing and online social media industry, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic, the participants decided to start their own physical studio and post their sex videos online to porn websites and social media platforms as freelancers (Choi et al., 2017), reflecting the findings of Jones (2020) study.

Limitations of the Study and Directions for Future Research

First of all, the current study collected data from a group of university students and recent graduates regarding their career decisions, motivations, and decision-making processes. However, it is not uncommon for mid-age individuals and groups to experience career transitions, particularly in the sex work profession. Therefore, future research studies could expand the sample to mid-age individuals and groups to further understand vocational backgrounds in the sex work profession.

Second, the current study only focused on the needs and problems of male sex workers in South Korea. Although many studies and projects have been conducted on the problems and rights of female sex workers in South Korea, it is important to offer help to all sex workers, regardless of their gender and social roles. Therefore, future research studies may further expand the lens to all sex workers in South Korea.

Third, sex work is an occupation. The participants should learn new skills and capacities from their occupations and workplace environments. However, as this study only focuses on the motivations, career decisions, and decision-making processes of their current stage, future research directions may further focus on their mid-term and long-term career development and pathways to investigate the skills of these groups of individuals in our communities.

Fourth, some participants decided to join the sex work profession due to financial stress and pressure. However, as this study focused on the motivations, career decisions, and decision-making processes of a group of male sex workers in South Korea, the researchers did not capture the ideas and thinking about how sex work and previous experiences may impact their post-sex work career development. More importantly, many participants do not have long-term plans after their current occupation. Researchers in this area may further expand the research and plan for sex workers who are planning to leave the sex work profession in the future.

Fifth, the COVID-19 pandemic has significantly impacted many people’s career decisions, motivations, and decision-making processes, particularly those of university students and recent graduates in the sex work profession. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and its aftermath may continue to influence the decisions and motivations of pre-service and in-service male sex workers. Further research studies may be useful in understanding this social issue following the COVID-19 pandemic.

Conclusions and Contributions to the Practices

Although previous studies have focused on the problems of sex workers and the sex work profession, the motivations, career decisions, and decision-making processes of male sex workers have not been widely examined, particularly among university students and graduates in South Korea. The findings of this study highlight the motivations of a group of educated male sex workers as well as the social issues for sex workers in South Korea. Government bodies, policymakers, and non-profit organizations may use this study as a reference for policy development and human resources schemes.

Footnotes

Ethical Statement

All subjects gave their informed consent for inclusion before they participated in the study. The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The study was supported by Woosong University Academic Research Funding 2022.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest witor publicati/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Luis Miguel Dos Santos

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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From University Students and Graduates to Male Sex Workers: The Career Decisions and Decision-Making Processes

Abstract

Plain Language Summary

Keywords

Introduction

Health Concerns for Sex Workers

Motivations, Career Decisions, and Decision-Making Processes of Sex Workers

Sex Work Profession and Problems in South Korea

The Impact of Technology Developments, Social Media, and Decision-Making Processes

Social Stigma and Male Sex Workers

Purpose of the Study

Theoretical Framework

The Social Cognitive Career and Motivation Theory

Materials and Methods

Results and Discussions

Financial Considerations

I Could Not Afford My Living Expenses in the City

I Want to Become a Porn Star and Sell Videos Online

Personal Interests in Sexual Activities

I Could Try Different Sex Partners at No Cost

Limited Career Opportunities for the Younger Generation

I Could Not See My Future With a Bachelor’s Degree: Freelancers From the Social Media

Limitations of the Study and Directions for Future Research

Conclusions and Contributions to the Practices

Footnotes

Ethical Statement

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Funding

ORCID iD

Data Availability Statement

References