Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online 2022-7
COVID-19 Onset,Parental Status,and Psychological Distress among Full-time Employed Heterosexual Adults in Dual-earning Relationships: The Explanatory Role of Work-family Conflict and Guilt
We propose that the COVID-19 pandemic and the restrictions to daily life that followed had greater negative impact on the mental health, as measured by psychological distress, of employed parents than nonparents, because of an associated increase in both directions of work-family conflict and work-family guilt among this group of the population. To test this argument, we examined pooled data from two cross-sectional online surveys administered to heterosexual adults in dual-earning relationships living in the United States. The first data set was collected before the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic (N = 616), and the second data set was collected during the early months of the pandemic (N = 454). Results of multivariate analyses show that distress increased between the two surveys, but only among parents, as compared with nonparents, irrespective of gender of the respondent, or age of the youngest child. This association is due to a change in work-family conflict and guilt between the two surveys: among parents, the COVID-19 onset was associated with higher family-to-work conflict, work-to-family guilt, and family-to-work guilt; among nonparents the pandemic was associated with lower work-to-family conflict and work-to-family guilt. Our results suggest that the COVID-19 onset had contrasting effects on the lives of employed parents and nonparents.
AarntzenLianneDerksBellevan SteenbergenElianneRyanMichellevan der LippeTanja. 2019. “Work-family Guilt as a Straightjacket. An Interview and Diary Study on Consequences of Mothers’ Work-family Guilt.” Journal of Vocational Behavior115:103336.
2.
AdolphChristopherAmanoKenyaBang-JensenBreeFullmanNancyWilkersonJohn. 2021. “Pandemic Politics: Timing State-level Social Distancing Responses to COVID-19.” Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law46:211–33.
3.
AkninLara B.De NeveJan-EmmanuelDunnElizabeth W.FancourtDaisy E.GoldbergElkhononHelliwellJohn F.JonesSarah P.KaramElieLayardRichardLyubomirskySonjaRzepaAndrewSaxenaShekharThorntonEmily M.VanderWeeleTyler J.WhillansAshley V.ZakiJamilCamanOzge KaradagAmorYanis Ben. 2022. “Mental Health during the First Year of the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Review and Recommendations for Moving Forward.” Perspectives on Psychological Science. Published electronically January. doi:10.1177/17456916211029964.
4.
AnicichEric M.FoulkTrevor A.OsborneMerrick R.GaleJakeSchaererMichael. 2020. “Getting Back to the ‘New Normal’: Autonomy Restoration during a Global Pandemic.” Journal of Applied Psychology105:931–43.
5.
BianchiSuzanne M.RobinsonJohn P.MilkieMelissa A.2006. Changing Rhythms of American Family Life. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
6.
Blair-LoyMary. 2003. Competing Devotions: Career and Family among Women Financial Executives. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
7.
BondJames T.ThompsonCindyGalinskyEllenProttasDavid. 2003. Highlights of the 2002 National Study of the Changing Workforce. New York: Families and Work Institute.
8.
BorelliJessica L.Nelson-CoffeyS. KatherineRiverLaura M.BirkenSarah A.Moss-RacusinCorinne. 2017. “Bringing Work Home: Gender and Parenting Correlates of Work-family Guilt among Parents of Toddler.” Journal of Child and Family Studies26:1734–45.
CollinsCaitlynLandivarLiana ChristinRuppannerLeahScarboroughWilliam J.2020. “COVID-19 and the Gender Gap in Work Hours.” Gender, Work & Organization28:101–12.
11.
CollinsCaitlynRuppannerLeahLandivarLiana ChristinScarboroughWilliam J.2021. “The Gendered Consequences of a Weak Infrastructure of Care: School Reopening Plans and Parents’ Employment during the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Gender and Society35:180–93.
12.
ConlinMichelle. 2000. “The New Debate over Working Moms: As More Moms Choose to Stay Home, Office Life Is again under Fire.” Business Week3699:102–104.
13.
CraigLynChurchillBrendan. 2020. “Dual-earner Parent Couples’ Work and Care during Covid-19.” Gender, Work and Organization28:66–79.
14.
CulattaElizabethClay-WarnerJody. 2021. “Falling Behind and Feeling Bad: Unmet Expectations and Mental Health during the Transition to Adulthood.” Society and Mental Health11:251–65.
15.
DamingerAllison. 2019. “The Cognitive Dimension of Household Labor.” American Sociological Review84:609–33.
16.
FontanesiLilybethMarchettiDanielaMazzaCristinaDi GiandomenicoSerenaRomaPaoloVerrocchioMaria Cristina. 2020. “The Effect of the COVID-19 Lockdown on Parents: A Call to Adopt Urgent Measures.” Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy12:S79–81.
17.
FroneMichael R.2003. “Work-family Balance.” Pp. 143–62 in Handbook of Occupational Health Psychology, edited by QuickJames C.TetricLois E.Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
18.
GiurgeLaura M.WhillansAshley V.YemiscigilAyse. 2021. “A Multicountry Perspective on Gender Differences in Time Use during Covid-19.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America118:e2018494118.
19.
GlassJenniferSimonRobin W.AnderssonMatthew A.2016. “Parenthood and Happiness: Effects of Work-family Reconciliation Policies in 22 OECD Countries.” American Journal of Sociology122:886–929.
20.
GlavinPaulSchiemanScottReidSarah. 2011. “Boundary Spanning Work Demands and Their Consequences for Work and Psychological Distress.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior52:43–57.
21.
GreenhausJeffrey H.BeutellNicholas J.1985. “Sources of Conflict between Work and Family Roles.” The Academy of Management Review10:76–88.
22.
GuidottiEmaneleArdiaDavid. 2020. “COVID-19 Data Hub.” Journal of Open Source Software5:2376.
23.
HayesAndrew F.2013. Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-based Approach. New York: The Guilford Press.
24.
HaysSharon. 1996. The Cultural Contradictions of Motherhood. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
KerrMargaret L.RasmussenHannah F.SmileyPatricia A.FanningKerrie A.ButtittaKatherine V.BensonLizbethBorelliJessica L.2021. “Within- and between-family Differences in Mothers’ Guilt and Shame: Caregiving, Coparenting, and Attachment.” Journal of Family Psychology35:265–75.
27.
KesslerRonald C.AndrewsGavinColpeLisa J.HiripiEvaMroczekDan K.NormandSharon-Lise T.WaltersEllen E.ZaslavskyAlan M.2002. “Short Screening Scales to Monitor Population Prevalences and Trends in Non-specific Psychological Distress.” Psychological Medicine32:959–76.
28.
KorabikKaren. 2015. “The Intersection of Gender and Work-family Guilt.” Pp. 141–57 in Gender and the Work-family Experience, edited by MillsMaura. Cham, Switzerland: Springer.
KraigerKurtMcGonagleAlyssa K.SanchezDiana R.2020, April. “What’s in a Sample? Comparison of Effect Size Replication and Response Quality across Student, MTurk, and Qualtrics Samples.”11th Conference on Organizational Psychology: People and Risks, Saratov State University, Saratov, Russia.
31.
LareauAnnette. 2011. Unequal Childhoods: Class, Race, and Family Life. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
32.
LeBlancAllen J.FrostDavid M.2019. “Couple-level Minority Stress and Mental Health among People in Same-sex Relationships: Extending Minority Stress Theory.” Society and Mental Health10:276–90.
33.
LeeEmma K.ParolinZachary. 2021. “The Care Burden during COVID-19: A National Database of Child Care Closures in the United States.” Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World7:1–10.
34.
MahabirBhindaiHernandezJoelSwainSonalSihVaniaDevkotaBhumika. 2021. “The Implementation of Basic Income: A Mental Health Approach.” Industrial and Organizational Psychology14:612–15.
35.
McElwainAllyson K.2008. “An Examination of the Reliability and Validity of the Work-family Guilt Scale.”PhD dissertation, Department of Psychology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada.
36.
MichelJesse S.KotrbaLindsey M.MitchelsonJacqueline K.ClarkMelissa A.BaltesBoris. 2011. “Antecedents of Work-family Conflict: A Meta-analytic Review.” Journal of Organizational Behavior32:689–725.
37.
MilkieMelissa A.2020. “CHANGING TIMES: New Sources of Parenting Stress and the Shifting Meanings of Time with and for Children.” Pp. 152–64 in COVID-19: Social Consequences and Cultural Adaptations, edited by RyanJ. M.New York: Routledge.
38.
MilkieMelissa A.NomaguchiKeiSchiemanScott. 2019. “Time Deficits with Children: The Link to Parents’ Mental and Physical Health.” Society and Mental Health9:277–95.
39.
MontazerShirinYoungMarisa. 2017. “Level of Economic Development of the Country of Origin and Work-to-family Conflict after Migration to Canada.” Social Science Research63:263–76.
40.
PalmerStephenPanchalSheilaO’RiordanSiobhan. 2020. “Could the Experience of the COVID-19 Pandemic Have and Positive Impact on Wellbeing?”European Journal of Applied Positive Psychology4:1–7.
41.
PearlinLeonard I.1999. “The Stress Process Revisited.” Pp. 395–415 in Handbook of the Sociology of Mental Health, edited by AneshenselC. S.PhelanJ. C.Boston, MA: Springer.
42.
PierceMatthiasHopeHollyFordTamsinHatchStephaniHotopfMatthewJohnAnnKontopantelisEvangelosWebbRogerWesselySimonMcManusSallyAbelKathryn M.2020. “Mental Health before and during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Longitudinal Probability Sample Survey of the UK Population.” The Lancet Psychiatry7:883–92.
43.
RogelbergSteven G.ChurchAllan H.WaclawskiJanineStantonJeffrey M.2002. “Organizational Survey Research.” Pp. 141–60 in Handbook of Research Methods in Industrial and Organizational Psychology, edited by RogelbergS. G. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.
44.
RomaPaoloMonaroMerylinColasantiMarcoRicciEleonoraBiondiSilviaDi DomenicoAlbertoVerrocchioMaria CristinaNapoliChristianFerracutiStefanoMazzaCristina. 2020. “A 2-Month Follow-up Study of Psychological Distress among Italian People during the COVID-19 Lockdown.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health17:8180.
45.
RudolphCort W.AllanBlakeClarkMelissaHertelGuidoHirschiAndreasKunzeFlorianShockleyKristenShossMindySonnentagSabineZacherHannez. 2021. “Pandemics: Implications for Research and Practice in Industrial and Organizational Psychology.” Industrial and Organizational Psychology14:1–35.
46.
SchiemanScottBadawyPhilip J.MilkieMeissa A.BiermanAlex. 2021. “Work-life Conflict during the COVID-19 Pandemic.” Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World7:1–19.
47.
ShaferKevinScheiblingCaseyMilkieMelissa A.2020. “The Division of Domestic Labour before & during the COVID19 Pandemic in Canada.” Canadian Review of Sociology57:523–49.
48.
ShockleyKristen M.ClarkMeissa A.DoddHopeKingEden B.2021. “Work-family Strategies during COVID-19: Examining Gender Dynamics among Dual-earner Couples with Young Children.” Journal of Applied Psychology106:15–28.
49.
ShockleyKristen M.ShenWinnyDeNunzioMichael M.ArvanMaryana L.KnudsenEric A.2017. “Disentangling the Relationship between Gender and Work-family Conflict: An Integration of Theoretical Perspectives Using Meta-analytic Methods.” Journal of Applied Psychology102:1601–35.
50.
SimonRobinCaputoJennifer. 2019. “The Cost and Benefits of Parenthood for Mental and Physical Health in the United States: The Importance of Parenting Stage.” Society and Mental Health9:296–315.
51.
SinclairRobert R.AllenTammyBarberLacieBergmanMindyBrittThomasButlerAdamFordMichaelHammerLeslieKathLisaProbstTahiraYuanZhenyu. 2020. “Occupational Health Science in the Time of COVID-19: Now More than Ever.” Occupational Health Science4:1–22.
52.
StetsJan E.TurnerJonathan H.2006. “Moral Emotions.” Pp. 544–65 in Handbook of the Sociology of Emotions, edited by StetsJan E.TurnerJonathan H.New York: Springer.
53.
UmbersonDebraThomeerMieke BethWilliamsKristi. 2013. “Family Status and Mental Health: Recent Advances and Future Directions.” Pp. 405–32 in Handbook of the Sociology of Mental Health, edited by AneshenselC. S.PhelanJ. C.BiermanA.2nd ed.New York: Springer.
54.
VoydanoffPatricia. 2005. “Consequences of Boundary-spanning Demands and Resources for Work-to-family Conflict and Perceived Stress.” Journal of Occupational Health Psychology10:491–503.
55.
WallGlendaArnoldStephanie. 2007. “How Involved Is Involved Fathering? An Exploration of the Contemporary Culture of Fatherhood.” Gender & Society21:508–27.
56.
WalterSheryl L.SeibertScott E.GoeringDanielO’BoyleErnest H.Jr.2019. “A Tale of Two Sample Sources: Do Results from Online Panel Data and Conventional Data Converge?”Journal of Business and Psychology34:425–52.
57.
WanbergConnie R.CsillagBorbalaDouglassRichard P.ZhouLePollardMichael S.2020. “Socioeconomic Status and Well-being during COVID-19: A Resource-based Examination.” Journal of Applied Psychology105:1382–96.
58.
WheatonBlairMontazerShirin. 2017. “Studying Stress in the Twenty-first-century: An Update of Stress Concepts and Research.” Pp. 180–206 in A Handbook for the Study of Mental Health: Social Contexts, Theories, and Systems, edited by ScheidTeresa L.WrightEric R.3rd ed.New York: Cambridge University Press.
59.
XueBaowenMcMunnAnne. 2021. “Gender Differences in Unpaid Care Work and Psychological Distress in the UK COVID-19 Lockdown.” PLoS ONE16:e0247959.
YoungMarisaMontazerShirinSinghDiana. 2020. “The Consequences of Living in Childcare Deserts: Evidence from Canada.”Canadian Sociological Review57: 550 –578.
62.
YoungMarisaMilkieMelissaSchiemanScott. 2022. “Mother-father Parity in Work-family Conflict? The Importance of Selection Effects and Nonresponse Bias.” Social Forces. Published electronically March. doi:10.1093/sf/soac015.
63.
YoungMarisaMontazerShirin. 2018. “Neighborhood Effects on Immigrants’ Experiences of Work-family Conflict and Psychological Distress.” Society and Mental Health8:25–49.
64.
ZamarroGemaPradosMaría J.2021. “Gender Differences in Couples’ Division of Childcare, Work and Mental Health during COVID-19.” Review of Economics of the Household19:11–40.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
