How do perceived expectations of what it means to be an adult affect mental health? We draw from life course and social psychological literature to argue that falling behind perceived expectations for reaching markers of adulthood is associated with depression and anxiety. We test predictions with data from an original sample of more than five hundred 18- to 29-year-olds in the United States. Consistent with predictions, we find a positive relationship between falling behind expectations and both anxiety and depression even while controlling for own expectations about the accomplishment of markers of adulthood. In particular, we find that falling behind perceived expectations of peers regarding markers of adulthood is associated with anxiety and that falling behind perceived expectations of parents and society regarding markers of adulthood is associated with depressive symptoms.
ArnettJeffrey Jensen. 2000. “Emerging Adulthood: A Theory of Development from the Late Teens through the Twenties.” American Psychologist55:469–80.
2.
ArnettJeffrey Jensen. 2015. Emerging Adulthood: The Winding Road from the Late Teens through the Twenties. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
3.
ArnettJeffrey JensenSchwabJoseph. 2012. Clark University Poll of Emerging Adults: Thriving Struggling, and Hopeful. Worchester, MA: Clark University.
4.
AronsonPamela. 2008. “The Markers and Meanings of Growing Up: Contemporary Young Women’s Transition from Adolescence to Adulthood.” Gender & Society22:56–82.
5.
AsencioEmily K.2013. “Self-esteem, Reflected Appraisals, and Self-views: Examining Criminal and Worker Identities.” Social Psychology Quarterly76:291–313.
6.
BeckAaron T.EpsteinNormanBrownGarySteerRobert A.1988. “An Inventory for Measuring Clinical Anxiety: Psychometric Properties.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology56:893–97.
7.
BerinskyAdam J.HuberGregory A.LenzGabriel S.2012. “Evaluating Online Labor Markets for Experimental Research: Amazon.Com’s Mechanical Turk.” Political Analysis20:351–68.
8.
BuhrmesterMichael D.TalaifarSanazGoslingSamuel D.2018. “An Evaluation of Amazon’s Mechanical Turk, Its Rapid Rise, and Its Effective Use.” Perspectives on Psychological Science13:149–54.
9.
ByrneAnneCarrDeborah. 2005. “Caught in the Cultural Lag: The Stigma of Singlehood.” Psychological Inquiry16:84–91.
10.
CarlsonDaniel L.2012. “Deviations from Desired Age at Marriage: Mental Health Differences across Marital Status.” Journal of Marriage and Family74:743–58.
11.
CherlinAndrew J.2009. The Marriage-Go-Round: The State of Marriage and the Family in America Today. New York: Knopf.
12.
ChristakisNicholas A.FowlerJames H.2009. Connected: The Surprising Power of Our Social Networks and How They Shape Our Lives. New York: Little, Brown Spark.
13.
CichyKelly E.LefkowitzEva S.DavisEden M.FingermanKaren L.2013. “‘You Are Such a Disappointment!’: Negative Emotions and Parents’ Perceptions of Adult Children’s Lack of Success.” Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences68:893–901.
14.
CooleyCharles Horton. 1902. Human Nature and the Social Order. New York: Scribner’s Sons.
15.
CopenCasey E.DanielsKimberlyVespaJonathanMoserWilliam D.2012. “First Marriages in the United States: Data from the 2006-2010 National Survey of Family Growth.” National Health Statistics Report49:1–21.
16.
CoppJennifer E.GiordanoPeggy C.LongmoreMonica A.ManningWendy D.2017. “Living with Parents and Emerging Adults’ Depressive Symptoms.” Journal of Family Issues38:2254–76.
17.
CowanCharles D.HauserRobert M.KominskiRobert A.LevinHenry M.LucasSamuel R.MorganStephen L.SpencerMargaret BealeChapmanChris. 2012. Improving the Measurement of Socioeconomic Status for the National Assessment of Educational Progress. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.
18.
CummingsColleen M.CaporinoNicole E.KendallPhilip C.2014. “Comorbidity of Anxiety and Depression in Children and Adolescents: 20 Years After.” Psychological Bulletin140:816–45.
19.
DanzigerSheldonRatnerDavid. 2010. “Labor Market Outcomes and the Transition to Adulthood.” The Future of Children20:133–58.
20.
ElderGlen H.Jr.JohnsonMonica KirkpatrickCrosnoeRobert. 2003. “The Emergence and Development of Life Course Theory.” Pp. 3–19 in Handbook of the Life Course, edited by MortimerJ. T.ShanahanM. J.New York: Plenum Publishing.
21.
EpkinsCatherine C.HecklerDavid R.2011. “Integrating Etiological Models of Social Anxiety and Depression in Youth: Evidence for a Cumulative Interpersonal Risk Model.” Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review14:329–76.
22.
EpsteinMarinaWardL. Monique. 2011. “Exploring Parent-adolescent Communication About Gender: Results from Adolescent and Emerging Adult Samples.” Sex Roles65:108–18.
23.
EysenckMichael W.FajkowskaMałgorzata. 2018. “Anxiety and Depression: Toward Overlapping and Distinctive Features.” Cognition and Emotion32:1391–400.
24.
FelsonRichard B.1985. “Reflected Appraisals and the Development of Self.” Social Psychology Quarterly48:71–78.
25.
FestaCandice C.GinsburgGolda S.2011. “Parental and Peer Predictors of Social Anxiety in Youth.” Child Psychiatry & Human Development42:291–306.
26.
FestingerLeon. 1954. “A Theory of Social Comparison Processes.” Human Relations7:117–40.
27.
FingermanKaren L.2017. “Millennials and Their Parents: Implications of the New Young Adulthood for Midlife Adults.” Innovation in Aging1:1–16.
28.
FurstenbergFrank F.Jr.KennedySheelaMcLoydVonnie C.RumbautRubén G.SetterstenRichard A.Jr.2004. “Growing up Is Harder to Do.” Contexts3:33–41.
29.
GallagherMary. 2016. “Adolescent-parent College Aspiration Discrepancies and Changes in Depressive Symptoms.” Sociological Perspectives59:296–316.
30.
GanongKathrynLarsonErik. 2011. “Intimacy and Belonging: The Association between Sexual Activity and Depression among Older Adults.” Society and Mental Health1:153–72.
31.
GeorgeLinda K.1993. “Sociological Perspectives on Life Transitions.” Annual Review of Sociology19:353–73.
32.
GieleJanet Z.ElderGlen H.1998. Methods of Life Course Research: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
33.
GollwitzerP. M.WicklundR. A.HiltonJ. L.1982. “Admission of Failure and Symbolic Self-completion: Extending Lewinian Theory.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology43:358–71.
34.
GoodmanJoseph K.CryderCynthia E.CheemaAmar. 2013. “Data Collection in a Flat World: The Strengths and Weaknesses of Mechanical Turk Samples.” Journal of Behavioral Decision Making26:213–24.
HagestadGunhild O.CallVaughn R. A.2007. “Pathways to Childlessness: A Life Course Perspective.” Journal of Family Issues28:1338–61.
37.
HenigS.HenigR. M.2012. Twentysomething: Why Do Young Adults Seem Stuck?London, England: Penguin Publishing Group.
38.
HutchersonSuzy T.EpkinsCatherine C.2009. “Differentiating Parent-and Peer-related Interpersonal Correlates of Depressive Symptoms and Social Anxiety in Preadolescent Girls.” Journal of Social and Personal Relationships26:875–97.
39.
KahnR. L.AntonucciT. C.1980. “Convoys over the Life Course: Attachment, Roles, and Social Support.” Pp. 254–83 in Life-span Development and Behavior, edited by BaltesP. B.BrimO. G.New York: Academic Press.
40.
KalmijnMatthijsDe GraafPaul M.2012. “Life Course Changes of Children and Well-being of Parents.” Journal of Marriage and Family74:269–80.
41.
KaoGrace. 2000. “Group Images and Possible Selves among Adolescents: Linking Stereotypes to Expectations by Race and Ethnicity.” Sociological Forum15:407–30.
42.
KefalasMaria J.FurstenbergFrank F.Jr.CarrPatrick J.NapolitanoLaura. 2017. “‘Marriage Is More than Being Together’: The Meaning of Marriage for Young Adults.” Pp. 111–33 in Crossings to Adulthood: How Diverse Young Americans Understand and Navigate Their Lives, vol. 4, edited by SwartzT. T.HartmanD.RumbautR. G.Boston, MA: Brill.
43.
KinchJohn W.1963. “A Formalized Theory of the Self-concept.” American Journal of Sociology68:481–86.
44.
KinsEvieBeyersWimSoenensBartVansteenkisteMaarten. 2009. “Patterns of Home Leaving and Subjective Well-being in Emerging Adulthood: The Role of Motivational Processes and Parental Autonomy Support.” Developmental Psychology45:1416–29.
45.
KranzlerAmyElkinsR. MeredithAlbanoAnne Marie. 2019. “Anxiety in Emerging Adulthood: A Developmentally Informed Treatment Model.” Pp. 499–519 in Pediatric Anxiety Disorders, edited by ComptonS. N.VillabøM. A.KristensenH.Cambridge, MA: Academic Press.
46.
KuoJanet Chen-LanRaleyR. Kelly. 2016. “Is It All about Money? Work Characteristics and Women’s and Men’s Marriage Formation in Early Adulthood.” Journal of Family Issues37:1046–73.
47.
LaBarKevin S.2018. “Fear and Anxiety.” Pp. 751–73 in Handbook of Emotions. 4th ed. edited by BarrettLisa FeldmanLewisMichaelHaviland-JonesJeannette M.New York: Guilford Press.
48.
LeopoldThomas. 2012. “The Legacy of Leaving Home: Long-term Effects of Coresidence on Parent: Child Relationships.” Journal of Marriage and Family74:399–412.
49.
LewisAmanda E.DiamondJohn B.2015. Despite the Best Intentions: How Racial Inequality Thrives in Good Schools. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
50.
LoprestiAdrian L.HoodSean D.DrummondPeter D.2013. “A Review of Lifestyle Factors That Contribute to Important Pathways Associated with Major Depression: Diet, Sleep and Exercise.” Journal of Affective Disorders148:12–27.
51.
MeadGeorge H.1934. Mind, Self and Society. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
52.
MossakowskiKrysia N.2011. “Unfulfilled Expectations and Symptoms of Depression among Young Adults.” Social Science & Medicine73:729–36.
NelsonLarry J.BarryCarolyn McNamara. 2005. “Distinguishing Features of Emerging Adulthood: The Role of Self-classification as an Adult.” Journal of Adolescent Research20:242–62.
55.
NeugartenBernice L.MoreJoan W.LoweJohn C.1965. “Age Norms, Age Constraints, and Adult Socialization.” American Journal of Sociology70:710–17.
56.
NorrisDawn R.2015. “‘Maybe If I Was 25, but I’m 40’: Age Identities, Work-related Problems, and Distress Management.” Sociological Spectrum35:399–418.
57.
OgburnWilliam Fielding. 1922. Social Change with Respect to Culture and Original Nature. New York: B.W. Huebsch, Incorporated.
58.
PanagakisC.2015. “Reconsidering Adulthood: Relative Constructions of Adult Identity During the Transition to Adulthood.” Advances in Life Course Research23:1–13.
59.
PaolacciGabrieleChandlerJesseIpeirotisPanagiotis G.2010. “Running Experiments on Amazon Mechanical Turk.” Judgment and Decision Making5:411–19.
60.
PatelVikramFlisherAlan J.HetrickSarahMcGorryPatrick. 2007. “Mental Health of Young People: A Global Public-health Challenge.” The Lancet369:1302–13.
Pitt-CatsouphesM.McNamaraT.2016. “Life Course Complexities Situated in Contemporary Age Demographics.” Community Work & Family19:148–70.
64.
RantaKlausKaltiala-HeinoRiittakerttuPelkonenMirjamiMarttunenMauri. 2009. “Associations between Peer Victimization, Self-reported Depression and Social Phobia among Adolescents: The Role of Comorbidity.” Journal of Adolescence32:77–93.
65.
RinkerDipali VenkataramanWaltersScott T.WyattTodd M.DeJongWilliam. 2015. “Do Incoming First-year College Students Who Think of Themselves as Adults Drink More Responsibly after Starting College?”Emerging Adulthood3:359–63.
66.
RuegerSandra YuMaleckiChristine KerresPyunYoonsunAycockChaseCoyleSamantha. 2016. “A Meta-analytic Review of the Association between Perceived Social Support and Depression in Childhood and Adolescence.” Psychological Bulletin142:1017–67.
67.
SchwartzSeth J.2016. “Turning Point for a Turning Point: Advancing Emerging Adulthood Theory and Research.” Emerging Adulthood4:307–17.
68.
SchwartzSeth J.ZamboangaByron L.LuyckxKoenMecaAlanRitchieRachel A.2013. “Identity in Emerging Adulthood: Reviewing the Field and Looking Forward.” Emerging Adulthood1:96–113.
69.
SetterstenRichard A.HagestadG. O.1996a. “What’s the Latest? Cultural Age Deadlines for Family Transitions.” Gerontologist36:178–88.
70.
SetterstenRichard A.HagestadG. O.1996b. “What’s the Latest. 2. Cultural Age Deadlines for Educational and Work Transitions.” Gerontologist36:602–13.
71.
SetterstenRichard A.Jr.MayerKarl Ulrich. 1997. “The Measurement of Age, Age Structuring, and the Life Course.” Annual Review of Sociology23:233–61.
72.
SetterstenRichardRayBarbara E.2010. Not Quite Adults: Why 20-somethings Are Choosing a Slower Path to Adulthood, and Why It’s Good for Everyone. New York: Bantam Books.
73.
ShanahanM. J.2000. “Pathways to Adulthood in Changing Societies: Variability and Mechanisms in Life Course Perspective.” Annual Review of Sociology26:667–92.
74.
ShanahanMichael J.PorfeliErikMortimerJeylan T.EricksonLance. 2005. “Subjective Age Identity and the Transition to Adulthood: When Does One Become an Adult.”On the frontier of adulthood: Theory, research, and public policy: 225–55.
75.
ShankDaniel B.2016. “Using Crowdsourcing Websites for Sociological Research: The Case of Amazon Mechanical Turk.” The American Sociologist47:47–55.
76.
SharpE. A.GanongL.2011. “‘I’m a Loser, I’m Not Married, Let’s Just All Look at Me’: Ever-single Women’s Perceptions of Their Social Environment.” Journal of Family Issues32:956–80.
77.
SilvaJennifer M.2013. Coming up Short: Working-class Adulthood in an Age of Uncertainty. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
78.
SirinSelcuk R.2005. “Socioeconomic Status and Academic Achievement: A Meta-analytic Review of Research.” Review of Educational Research75:417–53.
79.
StetsJan E.2012. “Current Emotion Research in Sociology: Advances in the Discipline.” Emotion Review4:326–34.
80.
StetsJan E.BurkePeter J.2005. “New Directions in Identity Control Theory.” Pp. 43–64 in Social Identification in Groups, vol. 22, edited by ThyeS. R.LawlerE. J.Bingley, England: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
81.
StetsJan E.BurkePeter J.2014. “Emotions and Identity Nonverification.” Social Psychology Quarterly77:387–410.
82.
SwannWilliam B.BuhrmesterMichael D.Jr.2014. “Self-verification: The Search for Coherence.” Pp. 405–24 in Handbook of Self and Identity, edited by LearyM. R.TangeneyJ. P.New York: Guilford Press.
83.
TroyerLisaYountsC. Wesley. 1997. “Whose Expectations Matter? The Relative Power of First-and Second-order Expectations in Determining Social Influence.” American Journal of Sociology103:692–732.
84.
TwengeJean M.2000. The Age of Anxiety? The Birth Cohort Change in Anxiety and Neuroticism, 1952–1993. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
85.
TwengeJean M.2015. “Time Period and Birth Cohort Differences in Depressive Symptoms in the Us, 1982-2013.” Social Indicators Research121:437–54.
86.
TwengeJean M.GentileBrittanyDeWallC. NathanMaDebbieLacefieldKatharineSchurtzDavid R.2010. “Birth Cohort Increases in Psychopathology among Young Americans, 1938–2007: A Cross-temporal Meta-analysis of the MMPI.” Clinical Psychology Review30:145–54.
87.
UmbersonDebraMontezJennifer Karas. 2010. “Social Relationships and Health: A Flashpoint for Health Policy.” Journal of Health and Social Behavior51:54–66.
Van DamNicholas T.EarleywineMitch. 2011. “Validation of the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale—Revised (CESD-R): Pragmatic Depression Assessment in the General Population.” Psychiatry Research186:128–32.
90.
VespaJonathan. 2017. The Changing Economics and Demographics of Young Adulthood: 1975-2016. Current Populations Reports. Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau.
91.
WesterhofG. J.WurmS.2015. “Longitudinal Research on Subjective Aging, Health, and Longevity: Current Evidence and New Directions for Research.” Annual Review of Gerontology & Geriatrics35:145–65.
92.
WhiteLynn. 1999. “Sure, I’d Like to Get Married . . . Someday.” Pp. 56–65 in Transitions to Adulthood in a Changing Economy: No Work, No Family, No Future? edited by BoothA.CrouterAnnShanahanMichael J.Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
