Youths’ experiences of belonging in the school community are crucial for their academic, social, behavioral, and mental health well-being. This article presents the development of the Student Belonging Scale (SBS), a culturally responsive instrument designed to measure middle and high school students’ sense of belonging in schools. The authors administered the SBS to 202 middle and high school students. Results of an exploratory factor analysis yielded a 40-item exploratory model encompassing four domains: (a) Connection with adults; (b) Connection with peers; (c) Identity acceptance by others; and (d) Academic behaviors. The SBS demonstrated promising psychometric properties, including evidence of convergent and discriminant validity, and internal consistency reliability. As a unique contribution to the literature, the SBS is one of the first belonging assessments to include items that specifically consider students’ cultural identity as it relates to their sense of belonging. We discuss the development of the SBS along with implications for school counselors and future research.
Akar-VuralR.Yılmaz-ÖzelçiS.ÇengelM.GömleksizM. (2013). The development of the “Sense of Belonging to School” scale. European Journal of Educational Research, 53(53), 215–230. https://doi.org/10.14689/ejer.2013.53.12
2.
AllenK.GrayD.BaumeisterR.LearyM. (2022). The need to belong: A deep dive into the origins, implications, and future of a foundational construct. Educational Psychology Review, 34(2), 1133–1156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-021-09633-6
3.
AllenK.KernM. L.Vell-BrodrickD.HattieJ.WatersL. (2016). What schools need to know about fostering school belonging: A meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 30, 1–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-016-9389-8
4.
AllenK.SlatenC. D.GokmenA.RoffeyS.CraigH.Vella-BrokrickD. (2022). School belonging: The importance of student and teacher relationships. In KernM. L.WehmeterM. L. (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of positive education (pp. 525–550). Palgrave Macmillan.
5.
American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, & National Council on Measurement in Education. (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. https://www.testingstandards.net/open-access-files.html
6.
American School Counselor Association. (2019). ASCA National Model: A framework for school counseling programs (4th ed.).
ArslanG. (2018). Exploring the association between school belonging and emotional health among adolescents. International Journal of Educational Psychology, 7(1), 21–41. https://doi.org/10.17583/ijep.2018.3117
10.
ArslanG. (2021). School belongingness, well-being, and mental health among adolescents: Exploring the role of loneliness. Australian Journal of Psychology, 73(1), 70–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/00049530.2021.1904499
11.
ArslanG.CoşkunM. (2023). School belongingness in academically at-risk adolescents: Addressing psychosocial functioning and psychological well-being. Journal of Happiness and Health, 3(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.47602/johah.v3i1.9
12.
ArslanG.DuruE. (2017). Initial development and validation of the School Belongingness Scale. Child Indicators Research, 10(4), 1043–1058. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-016-9414-y
13.
BlountA. J.LambieG. W. (2018). Development and factor structure of the helping professional wellness discrepancy scale. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 51(2), 92–110. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481756.2017.1358060
14.
BooneW. J. (2016). Rasch analysis for instrument development: Why, when, and how?CBE-Life Sciences Education, 15(4), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.16-04-0148
15.
BostonC.WarrenS. R. (2017). The effects of belonging and racial identity on urban African American high school students’ achievement. Journal of Urban Learning, Teaching, and Research, 13, 26–33. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1150199.pdf.
16.
BulaJ. F. (2000). Use of the multicultural self for effective practice. In BaldwinM. (Ed.), The use of self in therapy (2nd ed., pp. 167–189). Hawthorne.
CemalcilarZ. (2010). Schools as socialisation contexts: Understanding the impact of school climate factors on students’ sense of school belonging. Applied Psychology, 59(2), 243–272. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2009.00389.x
19.
ChenS. Y.RollerK.KottmanT. (2021). Adlerian family play therapy: Healing the attachment trauma of divorce. International Journal of Play Therapy, 30(1), 28–39. https://doi.org/10.1037/pla0000146
20.
ChenW.LinY.YuX.ZhengW.WuS.HuangM.ChenW.ZhouS. (2022). The relationship between bicultural identity integration, self-esteem, academic resilience, interaction anxiousness, and school belonging among university students with vocational qualifications. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(6), Article 3632. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph1906363
21.
CostelloA. B.OsborneJ. (2005). Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: Four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. Practical Assessment, Research and Evaluation, 10(7), 1–9.
CupitoA. M.SteinG. L.GonzalezL. M. (2015). Familial cultural values, depressive symptoms, school belonging and grades in Latino adolescents: Does gender matter?Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(6), 1638–1649. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-9967-7
24.
DeVellisR. F. (2017). Scale development (4th ed.). Sage.
25.
DickinsonR.KottmanT. (2021). Using the crucial Cs in Adlerian play therapy. The Journal of Individual Psychology, 77(2), 154–164. https://doi.org/10.1353/jip.2021.0011
26.
Dillman TaylorD.BrattonS. C.HensonR. K. (2019). Confirming the constructs of Adlerian personality priority assessment. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 52(3), 191–206. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481756.2019.1595814
27.
DimitrovD. M. (2012). Statistical methods for validation of assessment scale data in counseling and related fields. American Counseling Association.
28.
DirekciB.CanbulatM.TezciI.AkbulutS. (2020). The psychometric properties of school belonging scale for middle school students. International Journal of Assessment Tools in Education, 7(2), 159–176. https://doi.org/10.21449/ijate.723386
29.
DueñasM.GloriaA. M. (2020). ¡ Pertenecemos y tenemos importancia aquí! Exploring sense of belonging and mattering for first-generation and continuing-generation Latinx undergraduates. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 42(1), 95–116. https://doi.org/10.1177/0739986319899734
FairclothB.HammJ. (2005). Sense of belonging among high school students representing 4 ethnic groups. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34, 293–309. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-005-5752-7
32.
Gillen-O’NeelC.FuligniA. (2013). A longitudinal study of school belonging and academic motivation across high school. Child Development, 84(2), 678–692. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01862.x
GrahamS.KogachiK.Morales-ChicasJ. (2022). Do I fit in: Race/ethnicity and feelings of belonging in school. Educational Psychology Review, 34(4), 2015–2042. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-022-09709-x
35.
GreenM.EmeryA.SandersM.AndermanL. H. (2016). Another path to belonging: A case study of middle school students’ perspectives. The Educational and Developmental Psychologist, 33(1), 85–96. https://doi.org/10.1017/edp.2016.4
36.
HairJ. F.HultG. T. M.RingleC. M.SarstedtM. (2017). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Sage.
37.
HatchelT.MarxR. (2018). Understanding intersectionality and resiliency among transgender adolescents: Exploring pathways among peer victimization, school belonging, and drug use. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(6), Article 1289. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15061289
38.
HaysD. G. (2010). Introduction to Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation. Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation, 1(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1177/2150137809360006
39.
HernándezM. M.RobinsR. W.WidamanK. F.CongerR. D. (2017). Ethnic pride, self- esteem, and school belonging: A reciprocal analysis over time. Developmental Psychology, 53(12), 2384–2396. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000434
JoeJ. H.JinM. K. (2022). Development and application of an Adlerian adventure play therapy program: Increasing community feeling among elementary school students. International Journal of Play Therapy, 32(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1037/pla0000187
42.
KieferS. M.AlleyK. M.EllerbrockC. R. (2015). Teacher and peer support for young adolescents’ motivation, engagement, and school belonging. RMLE Online, 38(8), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/19404476.2015.11641184
43.
KlineR. B. (2015). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). Guilford.
44.
KorpershoekH.CanrinusE. T.Fokkens-BruinsmaM.de BoerH. (2020). The relationships between school belonging and students’ motivational, social-emotional behavioral, and academic outcomes in secondary education: A meta-analytic review. Research Papers in Education, 35(6), 641–680. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2019.1615116
45.
LawP.CuskellyM.CarrollA. (2013). Young People’s perceptions of family, peer, and school connectedness and their impact on adjustment. Australian Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 23(1), 115–140. https://doi.org/10.1017/jgc.2012.19
46.
LibbeyH. P. (2004). Measuring student relationships to school: Attachment, bonding, connectedness, and engagement. Journal of School Health, 74(7), 275–283. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2004.tb08284.x
47.
LittleR. (1988). A test of missingness completely at random for multivariate data with missing values.Journal of the American Statistical Association, 83(404), 1198–1202. https://doi.org/10.1080/01621459.1988.10478722
48.
MaJ.BatterhamP. J.CalearA. L.SunderlandM. (2019). The development and validation of the Thwarted Belongingness Scale (TBS) for interpersonal suicide risk. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 41(3), 456–469. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-019-09721-6
49.
MarxR. A.HatchelT.MehringC. B.EspelageD. L. (2021). Predictors of sexual victimization and suicidal ideation among transgender and gender-nonconforming adolescents. Psychology & Sexuality, 12(1-2), 79–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2019.1690034
50.
MvududuN. H.SinkC. A. (2013). Factor analysis in counseling research and practice. Counseling Outcome Research and Evaluation, 4(2), 75–98. https://doi.org/10.1177/2150137813494766
51.
NasirN.JonesA.McLaughlinM. (2011). School connectedness for students in low-income urban high schools. Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education, 113(8), 1755–1793. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811111300805
52.
O’BrienK.BowlesT. (2013). The importance of belonging for adolescents in secondary school settings. European Journal of Social & Behavioural Sciences, 5(2), 319–332. https://doi.org/10.15405/ejsbs.72
53.
OsborneJ. W. (2014). Best practices in exploratory factor analysis. Createspace.
54.
OstermanK. F. (2000). Students’ need for belonging in the school community. Review of Educational Research, 70(3), 323–367. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543070003323
55.
PettM. A.LackeyN. R.SullivanJ. J. (2003). Making sense of factor analysis: The use of factor analysis for instrument development in health care research. Sage.
56.
RaposaE. B.RhodesJ.StamsG. J.CardN.BurtonS.SchwartzS.SykesL.KanchewaS.KupersmidtJ.HussainS. (2019). The effects of youth mentoring programs: A meta-analysis of outcome studies. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48(3), 423–443. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-00982-8
57.
RobertsR. E.LewinsohnP. M.SeeleyJ. R. (1993). A brief measure of loneliness suitable for use with adolescents. Psychological Reports, 72(3), 1379–1391. https://doi.org/10.2466/pr0.1993.72.3c.1379
58.
SánchezB.ColónY.EsparzaP. (2005). The role of sense of school belonging and gender in the academic adjustment of Latino adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 34(6), 619–628. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-005-8950-4
59.
SlatenC. D.FergusonJ. K.AllenK. A.BrodrickD. V.WatersL. (2016). School belonging: A review of the history, current trends, and future directions. The Educational and Developmental Psychologist, 33(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1017/edp.2016.6
60.
SlatenC. D.RoseC. A.BonifayW.FergusonJ. K. (2019). The Milwaukee Youth Belongingness Scale (MYBS): Development and validation of the scale utilizing item response theory. School Psychologist, 34(3), 296–306. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000299
61.
Stickl HaugenJ.Wachter MorrisC.WesterK. (2019). The need to belong: An exploration of belonging among urban middle school students. Journal of Child and Adolescent Counseling, 5(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/23727810.2018.1556988
62.
SueD. W.SueD.NevilleH. A.SmithL. (2019). Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice (8th ed.). Wiley.
63.
TabachnickB. G.FidellL. S. (2019). Using multivariate statistics (7th ed.). Pearson.
64.
TilleryA.VarjasK.RoachA.KupermincG.MeyersJ. (2013). The importance of adult connections in adolescents’ sense of school belonging: Implications for schools and practitioners. Journal of School Violence, 12(2), 134–155. https://doi.org/10.1080/15388220.2012.762518
65.
VelicerW. F. (1976). Determining the number of components from the matrix of partial correlations. Psychometrika, 41(3), 321–327. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02293557
66.
WatsonJ. C. (2017). Establishing evidence for internal structure using exploratory factor analysis. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 50(4), 232–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481756.2017.1336931
67.
WhitingE. F.EversonK. C.FeinauerE. (2018). The simple school belonging scale: Working toward a unidimensional measure of student belonging. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 51(3), 163–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481756.2017.1358057
68.
WorthingtonR. L.WittakerT. A. (2006). Scale development research: A content analysis and recommendations for best practices. The Counseling Psychologist, 34(6), 806–838. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006288127
69.
ZhouC.GaoM.ShiX.ZhangZ. (2022). Suicidal behavior, depression and loneliness among college students: The role of school belonging. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 28(6), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2022.2113105
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
