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Abstract

We analyzed data from a national sample to explore whether school counselors participated in induction programs and mentoring and how that participation impacted burnout and work engagement. Results indicated that, although school counselors often had mentors, most did not participate in induction programs. Both work engagement and burnout improved when participants engaged in induction programs and mentoring. We discuss the implication of these findings for practice and future research.

Keywords

induction mentoring school counselor burnout work engagement

The mental health crisis impacting school-age youth (Centers for Disease Control [CDC], 2019, 2021) and increasingly inequitable access to counseling support in schools (Gagnon & Mattingly, 2016; Savitz-Romer & Nicola, 2022) underscore the current social context that school counselors must navigate. Retention strategies to sustain school counselors in the profession, particularly those aimed at supporting early-career school counselors, are an important consideration given the unique challenges they encounter when adjusting to their new practitioner roles. The American School Counselor Association (ASCA, 2019) calls for school counselors to provide comprehensive services that address students’ academic, career, and social/emotional development. However, early-career school counselors encounter barriers, including but not limited to competing job demands, unclear and inconsistent role definitions, and expectations to perform duties unrelated to school counseling (Blake, 2020). They face these challenges while also navigating unfamiliar organizational structures and acclimating to the climate and culture of a new school (Curry & Bickmore, 2013). Further, although preservice preparation, including fieldwork experiences, aims to equip early-career school counselors to transition into the field effectively, a gap exists between academic preparation and practice (Goodman-Scott, 2015; Goodman-Scott et al., 2020). These combined challenges may leave early-career school counselors feeling overwhelmed and incapable (Curry & Bickmore, 2013), ultimately contributing to greater perceived stress and burnout and decreased job satisfaction (Bardhoshi et al., 2022; Mullen et al., 2018). School counselors who transition from academic preparation to practice face professional and personal challenges that can impact their ability to serve students effectively. However, despite the known struggles that early-career school counselors face transitioning to practice, the degree to which school counselors participate in induction activities and the impacts of those activities remain unclear and generally unexplored through empirical research.

To prepare school counselors for the transition to work and to enhance retention, induction programs can be considered. Educators, including novice teachers and administrators, often demonstrate decreased job attrition and turnover after participation in an induction program (Daresh & Playko, 1992; Ingersoll & Strong, 2011; Kang & Berliner, 2012; Ronfeldt & McQueen, 2017). Induction programs provide intentionally designed support systems during early career phases and serve as a bridge for new educators by guiding their transitions from student to teacher (Smith & Ingersoll, 2004). Induction activities include structured mentorship with a mentor in the same field, orientations, interactions with administrators, opportunities for collaborative planning, and high-quality professional development (Bickmore & Bickmore, 2010). Although research concerning formal and intentional school counselor induction programs is limited and outdated (e.g., Curry & Bickmore, 2012; Loveless, 2010; Matthes, 1992; Stickel & Trimmer, 1994), early-career school counselors clearly struggle with the transition into their new roles (Curry & Bickmore, 2013), and this struggle is aggravated by a lack of formal mentorship (Curry & Bickmore, 2012; Loveless, 2010). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to analyze data from a national sample of school counselors to: (a) understand the rate at which they are engaging in induction activities, particularly mentoring, at the beginning of their careers and (b) examine differences in work engagement and burnout between school counselors who participated in induction programs and mentorship and those who did not.

Challenges of New Education Professionals

Public school leaders have navigated many challenges in the last few decades related to hiring, turnover, and attrition that impact education professionals in all disciplines. For example, since the 1980s, the size of the teaching force in the United States increased by more than 60%, lowering the student–teacher ratio while driving demand for teachers (Ingersoll et al., 2018). The increased need for teachers created shortages nationwide, and teacher turnover contributed significantly to those deficits (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011). Novice teachers experience the highest turnover rates, with one group of authors noting that more than 44% of new teachers exit the field within their first 5 years (Ingersoll et al., 2018). The primary issue, then, is not an insufficient supply of new teachers, but rather that significant numbers of teachers, especially novice teachers, leave the field before they retire.

Primary factors that impact new teachers’ decisions to leave the profession include a lack of support from administration, feelings of isolation, and workplace challenges (Ingersoll et al., 2018). Beginning teachers seek collegial relationships and emotional support from school leaders during their transition from preservice training to practice, and the presence or absence of these layers of support likely impacts new teachers’ self-efficacy, well-being, and, ultimately, their decisions about early-career exits (Gallant & Riley, 2014). New educators require support not only in understanding the specifics of job responsibilities but also in developing a network and a sense of belonging within their building.

Early-career school counselors face similar challenges transitioning into practice. Younger and less experienced school counselors report higher levels of stress and burnout (Mullen et al., 2018), and turnover can be seen as a symptom of burnout (Lambie, 2007). As is true for novice teachers, experiences including administrator interactions, student relationships, and collaboration with stakeholders helped to mitigate the challenges associated with transitioning into practice for early-career school counselors (Curry & Bickmore, 2012). Considering the rapidly rising rates of suicidality and depression among youth (CDC, 2019, 2021) and the strengthened calls for equitable access to counseling support for all students (Gagnon & Mattingly, 2016; Savitz-Romer & Nicola, 2022), the need for qualified school counselors is increasing. Therefore, reducing turnover is essential, requiring efforts to retain school counselors, particularly early in their careers.

Learning From Teacher Induction Programs

Induction programs support beginning educators’ performance and improve job retention to impact student growth positively (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011; Kang & Berliner, 2012; Ronfeldt & McQueen, 2017). Even with top-quality preservice preparation, the existence of induction supports indicates that certain elements of practice can only be mastered on the job. The most effective induction activities include “having a mentor from the same field, having common planning time with other teachers in the same subject or collaboration with other teachers on instruction, and being part of an external network of teachers” (Smith & Ingersoll, 2004, p. 706). Common induction elements include mentoring, orientations, interaction with administrators, opportunities for collaboration, and high-quality professional development (Bickmore & Bickmore, 2010). With little research concerning school counselor induction, teacher induction literature offers a foundational understanding of induction programs and their benefits.

Mentoring

Researchers and practitioners widely consider mentoring central to induction to the extent that the two terms are used interchangeably (Smith & Ingersoll, 2004). Mentoring is defined as an enduring relationship where a less experienced (i.e., mentee) and more experienced (i.e., mentor) person work together, building capacity to benefit the mentee’s development (DuBois & Karcher, 2014). Formal mentoring occurs when people are assigned to one another through organized programs, whereas informal mentoring takes place in naturally occurring relationships (Inzer & Crawford, 2005). Induction programs often incorporate formal mentoring structures with newer educators intentionally paired with a mentor. Research supports that induction programs, particularly mentoring, positively impact other beginning educators’ job satisfaction and retention (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011). However, little is known about the rate at which school counselors are assigned mentors and who serves in those mentorship roles.

Mentoring is distinct from other formal relationships that may exist within a school counselor’s job. Although clinical, administrative, and program supervision benefit school counselors, for the purpose of this study, we differentiated between a mentoring relationship and a supervisory relationship with an identified clinical supervisor; such a relationship can involve mentoring but also includes additional evaluation and gatekeeping responsibilities (Borders & Brown, 2022; Borders et al., 2014). New counselors outside of educational settings (e.g., mental health counselors) who pursue postgraduate licensure must complete between 1500 and 4000 hours of supervised experience with an approved clinical supervisor (Henriksen et al., 2019). Although not all supervisory relationships include mentoring aspects, mental health counselors who are new to the field participate in required supervision with embedded support to effectively transition from preparation to practice. In contrast, school counselors generally obtain postgraduate licensure or certification through their state Department of Education without any additional supervision requirements after graduation (Borders & Brown, 2022; Herlihy et al., 2002). The lack of required supervision or mentoring activities for school counselors creates inconsistency in how school districts address these professionals’ needs during their transition into practice.

Orientations

Orientations are specifically designed meetings that introduce new school employees to critical information at both the district level (e.g., vision and mission, human resources and payroll, benefits) and building level (e.g., school goals, policies and procedures, introduction to key school staff and the new employee’s mentor; Bickmore & Bickmore, 2010). Although both district and building orientations contain essential information, the school-specific programming may be most impactful, given the emphasis on the unique culture and practices of a specific school (Shepherd, 2022). New teachers in one high school reported valuing a structured orientation that included information relevant to their roles (DeMichino-Acquadro, 2019). Orientation programs for school counselors, however, are generally inconsistent and can vary widely, from a building-level meeting with the principal and other new staff members to a district-level meeting with other new school counselors or a single district-wide meeting for all new employees. In interviews with seven novice school counselors, Curry and Bickmore (2012) noted that none of their participants received a helpful orientation at the beginning of their transition. School counselors reported orientations that were not relevant because they were targeted toward all new staff and did not cover the information school counselors really needed to be effective in their new roles.

Administrator Interaction

In interviews with five new teachers, Bickmore and Bickmore (2010) found that principals were equally as crucial as mentors in supporting a teacher’s professional needs during the transition to the field. While mentors met more emotionally focused needs like building a sense of belonging and reducing stress, positive relationships with administrators encouraged new teachers’ autonomy and reinforced their sense of competence (Bickmore & Bickmore, 2010). The availability and approachability of administrators contribute to new teachers’ confidence, and principals’ instructional observations, including positive feedback and constructive criticism, may also positively affect beginning teachers’ self-efficacy (Shepherd, 2022). Administrators support induction through formal, structured interactions (e.g., standing weekly meetings with the new school counselor, observations) and informal, purposeful interactions (e.g., check-ins, impromptu consultation between administrator and school counselor). Principals and school counselors each have unique professional characteristics that, when combined via collaboration, may contribute to a more positive school climate (Rock et al., 2017), higher job satisfaction for school counselors (Clemens et al., 2009), increased quality of school counseling programs (Dollarhide et al., 2007), and overall teaching and learning success (Dahir et al., 2010; McCarty et al., 2014). Positive and consistent administrator interaction is an impactful element of induction for all new employees. However, it is likely even more critical for new school counselors, whose work concerns the whole school and is inevitably enmeshed with the work of administrators.

Opportunities for Collaboration

Collaborative school cultures and practices support induction (Bickmore & Bickmore, 2010). Bickmore et al. (2005) found that intentional teaming contributed positively to the personal needs of new teachers by providing emotional support, building collegiality, and improving competence and self-efficacy. Collaborative teaming also addressed professional needs, including knowledge of curriculum and instruction and management practices around school policies and procedures. When examining the effectiveness of specific teacher induction practices, Reeves et al. (2022) found that team teaching alongside experienced teachers was associated with more favorable teaching practices in beginning teachers. School counselors may face challenges in finding this type of team support because not all schools have a department or team of multiple school counselors. However, school counselors can be included in school-based leadership teams or student support teams, in district-level teams of other school counselors, and as leaders in school-based staff meetings (Bryan & Griffin, 2010; Geiger & Oehrtman, 2020). This involvement not only offers opportunities for professional collaboration, it also begins to position school counselors as leaders and advocates who can effectively build partnerships within their schools and communities (Bryan & Griffin, 2010; Bryan & Holcomb-McCoy, 2007). Further, informal mentorship and creating connections with teachers and staff members in their building can promote a sense of community for early-career school counselors (Curry & Bickmore, 2012). Collaborative structures provide opportunities for new counselors to construct a network and a sense of belonging, develop their competence, and build knowledge of policies, procedures, and instructional practices.

Professional Development

Professional development offers opportunities to hone professional skills and connect with resources that help with job responsibilities. When conducted in a single school or district, it also allows for the development of shared understandings about instructional practices, programs, and priorities. Although new teachers commonly participate in targeted professional development beyond that which is expected of the full school staff (Bickmore & Bickmore, 2010), school counselors’ experiences with professional development are inconsistent. In interviews with seven novice school counselors, Curry and Bickmore (2012) found that participants routinely received professional development designed for teachers that did not fit school counseling responsibilities. This lack of meaningful professional development led to frustration, feelings of isolation, and perceptions that the school counselor’s role was unimportant and undervalued. Professional development for school counselors can be more impactful when it is ongoing versus a single presentation or lecture, and when it is facilitated collaboratively with a network or cohort of other school counselors (Griffen & Hallett, 2017). By considering the professional development needs specific to school counselors, administrators and district leaders can provide an important layer of induction support to early-career school counselors.

School Counseling Induction Programs

Concerning the induction experiences of school counselors specifically, Matthes (1992) conducted some of the earliest research, finding that “novice counselors are expected to function in isolation with minimal support and supervision” (p. 249). New school counselors reported limited resources (e.g., instructional materials, discretionary funds, support staff), no formal mentor assignment, and no reduction in workload during their transitions into practice. Stickel and Trimmer (1994) presented a case study of one school counselor’s first year of practice, observing that new school counselors require opportunities for critical reflection, as well as guidance in developing problem-solving and decision-making skills in the specific context of their setting.

Although these early studies identified induction activities that may support early-career school counselors’ transitions, Curry and Bickmore (2012) first explored how school counselors are actually impacted by these practices. Through a series of interviews with seven novice school counselors, they identified that formal and informal interactions with administrators, connections with students, and relationships with stakeholders (e.g., counseling teams, teachers, parents) all contributed to new school counselors’ sense of mattering and belonging. Conversely, they also found factors that negatively impacted these counselors’ transitions, including professional development that was poor quality or not relevant to school counselors, lack of an orientation or an orientation that was not geared specifically toward school counselors, ineffective resources and supports (e.g., inadequate time, lack of training, unclear expectations), lack of mentorship, and poor administrative relationships (Curry & Bickmore, 2012). Robinson et al. (2019) asserted that beginning school counselors also require specific induction supports to establish themselves as leaders and systemic change agents within their schools, including administrative support, orientations, and mentoring efforts that will ground them in the demographics and sociopolitical contexts of their unique schools and districts. Despite the need for retention of new school counselors and the known positive impacts of induction activities on turnover and attrition for other new educators, no other research has explored early-career school counselors’ induction experiences. Thus, the research questions that guided the present study were:

1. What is the frequency with which school counselors participate in induction programs and professional mentoring?

2. Did the mean burnout scores differ significantly between school counselors who participated in an induction program and those who did not participate in an induction program?

3. Did the mean work engagement scores differ significantly between school counselors who participated in an induction program and those who did not participate in an induction program?

4. Did the mean burnout scores differ significantly between school counselors who report having a mentor and those who do not have a mentor?

5. Did the mean work engagement scores differ significantly between school counselors who report having a mentor and those who do not have a mentor?

Method

Participants and Procedures

This study’s data originated from a larger published study (Mullen et al., 2020) that employed a descriptive, cross-sectional quantitative design and used survey research methods for data collection. After obtaining institutional review board approval, the original researchers applied a stratified random sampling procedure whereby 600 school counselors’ names and mailing addresses were identified in a manner that allowed for selection of an equal number of participants from elementary, middle, and high school settings across the United States. Using the Elementary/Secondary Information System from the U.S. Department of Education (National Center for Education Statistics, 2019), the researchers generated a list of every public school in the United States. A stratified random sampling of these schools allowed for equal and random selection of elementary, middle/junior high, and high schools. For the schools selected through this sampling process, researchers then searched school websites to identify the name of a school counselor and acquire the school’s mailing address. Each school counselor was randomly identified using Randomizer.org based on the order of their name as listed on the website to ensure all school counselors had an equal chance of being chosen. Selected participants received a paper-based survey that was mailed up to three times with invitations to participate via a Qualtrics website. The first letter included a $1.00 token incentive, and participants could opt out at any time. Once participants completed the study or opted out, they were removed from future correspondence and reminder mailings.

An a priori power analysis for an independent samples t test with an alpha of .05, power of .80, and an anticipated medium effect indicated that a sample size of 102 was required. The sampling process yielded a 49% response rate and a total sample size of 288 school counselors, which exceeded the minimum sample size required. We aimed to examine school counselors’ early career experiences of induction and mentoring and the impacts of these programs. To achieve this aim, we selected from the larger dataset a sample of participants who were in their first 10 years of working as school counselors (N = 152) for inclusion in the present study. Early-career professionals in counseling and psychology are typically considered to be within their first 7 years of professional practice (Luke & Goodrich, 2010; Parker et al., 2022; Smith et al., 2012). However, we expanded this timeframe to 10 years to ensure the sample size would be sufficient for analysis. Also of benefit, the participants would have engaged in induction programs recently enough to recall their early-career experiences. The participants’ demographic information is shared in Table 1.

Table 1.

Demographic Characteristics.

Demographic characteristic	M	SD
Age	36.63	8.64
Years of experience	4.54	2.75
	n	%
Gender
Female	128	84.2
Male	21	13.8
Prefer not to disclose	3	2.0
Race/ethnicity
Black/African American	22	14.5%
Hispanic/Latino/a	9	5.9%
Multiracial	5	3.3%
White	114	75.0%
Other	2	1.3%
Location^a
Rural	58	38.2%
Suburban	57	37.5%
Urban	35	23.0%
Other	1	0.7%
Grade level^a
Elementary	47	30.9%
Middle/junior high	50	32.9%
High school	38	25.0%
Other	16	10.5%

Note. N = 152.

^aOne participant did not provide a response.

Measures

Induction and Mentoring

The questions developed in the original study (Mullen et al., 2020) captured data on participants’ experience with induction programs and mentoring. Prior to answering the induction-focused question, participants reviewed the following brief description of induction programs to ensure they were familiar with the concept: “Induction is a ‘comprehensive, coherent, and sustained professional development process that is organized by a school district to train, support, and retain new [school counselors]’” (Wong, 2004, p. 42). Participants could then select “yes” or “no” to the following question about participation in an induction program: “Did you participate in a new employee/school counselor induction program in your first year as a school counselor?” Similarly, the following brief description of mentoring was provided before participants were asked about their current professional mentors:

A mentor is an experienced employee who serves as a role model, provides direction, support, and feedback regarding career and personal development. A mentor is also someone with influence and insight, who directly provides upward mobility and/or brings your accomplishments to the attention of people who have power in [your school or district]. (Qian et al., 2014, pp. 613–614)

Regarding mentoring, participants answered the following questions: “Do you currently have a mentor(s)?” and “If yes, think about the most influential mentor you have. What discipline are they from?” These questions were used for descriptive statistics and as grouping variables in the data analysis. Because the questions were created by the original researchers (Mullen et al., 2020), we have no evidence of reliability and validity to report.

Burnout

The study captured data on participants’ burnout by using the Burnout Measure, Short Version (BMS; Malach-Pines, 2005). The BMS is a 10-item instrument based on the larger Burnout Measure created by Pines and Aronson (1988). The measure captures a person’s mental, emotional, and physical exhaustion. On the BMS, burnout is conceptualized as a one-dimensional concept and includes stems that ask about feelings of depression, worthlessness, hopelessness, and being trapped. The BMS asks a single question: “When you think about your work over the past 3–4 weeks, how often did you feel the following?” Participants rated their feelings on a scale from 1 (never) to 7 (always) for the different stems. A total score is calculated, with higher scores indicating greater burnout. The reliability of the BMS scores in two studies with school counselors produced a Cronbach’s α of .89 (Mullen & Crowe, 2017; Mullen et al., 2018). In the current study, Cronbach’s α was .94.

Work Engagement

Participants provided work engagement data by completing the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES; Schaufeli et al., 2006). The UWES is a 9-item scale designed to capture a person’s experience of work engagement, which is the feeling of being fulfilled due to a job. The UWES measures work engagement across the domains of vigor, dedication, and absorption. Participants indicated their response to stems ranging from 0 (never) to 6 (always, every day). A sample item is “I am immersed in my work.” In prior research, internal consistency reliability for scores on the UWES was good (Cronbach’s α ranging from .79 to .92), and our study found similar results (Cronbach’s α of .91).

Data Analysis Procedures

The data for the larger study (Mullen et al., 2020) was collected using a Qualtrics survey. After downloading the data, it was cleaned, and the statistical assumptions were evaluated. Our study applied several statistical approaches to the selected sample data to answer the research questions. First, we examined descriptive statistics to identify prevalence rates of school counselors’ participation in induction and mentoring programs. We also used the chi-square test of independence and, before running the analysis, checked to ensure that each cell had at least five cases to meet the minimum expected cell frequency. For cases where 2 by 2 cells were analyzed, we employed Yates’ Correction for Continuity. We also used the phi coefficient (.1 = small, .3 = medium, and .5 = large) and Cramer’s V (.07 = small, .21 = medium, and .35 = large) to calculate the effect size for the 2 by 2 and 2 by 3 chi-square tests, respectively. We applied a series of independent-samples t tests to examine the mean difference in outcome variables (burnout and work engagement) based on grouping variables (participation in an induction program and having a mentor). The outcome variables in this study produced normal distributions. When running each analysis, we determined which results to use by first examining the results of Levene’s test, and if equal variances were not assumed, we used the appropriate output. We report the eta squared effect size coefficient (.01 = small, .06 = medium, and .14 = large). We used a .05 p-value cutoff for scores for all of the analyses.

Results

The first research question explored the rate at which school counselors (N = 152) participated in an induction program during their first 10 years in the profession. The majority noted that they did not participate in an induction program (n = 83, 54.6%), while 45.4% (n = 69) did participate in an induction program. To better understand these rates, we examined participation based on grade level, location, and gender using a series of chi-square tests for independence that indicated no statistically significant association between participation in an induction program and participants’ grade level, χ² (3) = 1.74, p = .63, Cramer’s V = .11; location, χ² (2) = .88, p = .65, Cramer’s V = .08; or gender, χ² (1) = .19, p = .66, phi = −.06. We then examined the association between participation in an induction program and whether participants had a professional mentor. A chi-square test for independence indicated a statistically significant association between participation in an induction program and participants having a mentor, χ² (1) = 11.99, p < .001, phi = .28. Of the sample, 94 (62%) indicated having a mentor and 58 (38%) did not. We did not complete a chi-square test for independence for race/ethnicity because too many cells had fewer than five cases. Table 2 summarizes these findings. Table 3 presents descriptive statistics on who participants identified as their most influential mentors.

Table 2.

Frequency of Induction Program Participation by Demographic Characteristics.

Demographic characteristic	Participation in an induction program
	Yes		No
	n	%	n	%
Gender^a
Female	59	46.1	69	53.9
Male	8	38.1	13	61.9
Prefer not to disclose	2	66.7	1	33.3
Race/ethnicity
Black/African American	5	22.7	17	77.3
Hispanic/Latino/a	3	33.3	6	60.7
Multiracial	3	60.0	2	40.0
White	57	50.0	57	50.0
Other	1	50.0	1	50.0
Location^b,c
Rural	24	41.4	34	58.6
Suburban	28	49.1	29	51.9
Urban	16	45.7	19	54.3
Other	1	100	0	0.0
Grade level^c
Elementary	23	48.9	24	51.1
Middle/junior high	21	42.0	29	58.0
High school	15	39.5	23	60.5
Other	9	56.3	7	43.8
Mentor
Yes	53	56.4	41	43.6
No	16	27.6	42	72.4

Note. N = 152. Percentages reflect yes/no by row or demographic characteristics.

^aThree cases (prefer not to disclose) were suppressed from analysis due to too few cases per cell.

^bOne case (other) was suppressed from the analysis due to too few cases per cell.

^cOne case was missing.

Table 3.

Participants’ Most Influential Mentor.

Most influential mentor	Frequency
Most influential mentor	n	%
A teacher	5	3.3
An administrator	15	9.9
A school psychologist	4	2.6
A school counselor from my school	30	19.7
A school counselor from another school	24	15.8
A district-level employee	3	2.0
A former faculty member	3	2.0
Other	4	2.6
I don’t have a mentor	58	38.2
Did not provide a response	6	3.9

Note. N = 152.

Research Questions 2 and 3

Research Question 2 explored whether a difference existed in mean burnout scores for school counselors who completed an induction program compared to those who did not. The independent-samples t test identified a statistically significant difference in burnout scores between school counselors who completed an induction program (M = 2.72, SD = .97) and those who did not (M = 3.05, SD = 1.27), t(147.02) = 1.81, p < .05, eta squared = .02. Research Question 3 tested whether a difference was present in average work engagement scores for school counselors who completed an induction program compared to those who did not. The second independent-samples t test revealed a statistically significant difference in work engagement scores between school counselors who completed an induction program (M = 4.12, SD = .79) and those who did not (M = 3.81, SD = 1.03), t(148) = −2.03, p < .01, eta squared = .03.

Research Questions 4 and 5

Research Question 4 explored whether a difference occurred in the mean burnout scores for school counselors who reported having a mentor as compared to those who did not. The independent-samples t test identified a statistically significant difference in burnout scores between school counselors who had a mentor (M = 2.69, SD = .92) and those who did not (M = 3.23, SD = 1.3), t(88.60) = 2.66, p < .01, eta squared = .05. Research Question 5 investigated whether a difference existed in mean work engagement scores for school counselors who reported having a mentor compared to those who did not. The independent-samples t test identified a statistically significant difference in work engagement scores between school counselors who had a mentor (M = 4.21, SD = .74) and those who did not (M = 3.56, SD = 1.07), t(91.14) = −4.03, p < .001, eta squared = .10.

Discussion

Our study provided baseline data about the participation rates of a national sample of school counselors in induction and mentoring activities and how that participation impacted their burnout and work engagement. In our first research question, we examined the rate at which school counselors participated in induction programs during their initial years in the profession. Most participants indicated that they did not participate in an induction program at the beginning of their school counseling career. Our finding is consistent with previous research indicating that school counselors face inadequate induction support, and that any support is not tailored specifically to their academic-to-practice transitions (Curry & Bickmore, 2012; Loveless, 2010; Matthes, 1992; Robinson et al., 2019). Our study utilized a random sample of school counselors from across the United States, which builds upon prior research by examining a broader sample.

While collecting data regarding participation in induction programs, we also captured specific information about participants’ professional mentorship experiences. Although these two concepts overlap, in that mentoring is a common element of induction programs, we examined the two independently to provide a more thorough foundational understanding of our study participants’ transitions into practice. The majority of the sample reported having a mentor and those who also participated in an induction program were more likely to do so. The most commonly reported influential mentors were a school counselor from the same school, followed by a school counselor at a different school or an administrator (see Table 3). Although researchers have established the positive impacts of mentoring as an induction support (Curry & Bickmore, 2012; Loveless, 2010; Matthes, 1992; Robinson et al., 2019) and suggested the importance of mentorship to promote retention in the school counseling profession (Konstam et al., 2015), strong formal mentoring relationships were not ubiquitous in these school counselors’ transitions into practice. The current literature is limited regarding the frequency with which school counselors engage in professional mentoring, and our findings begin to clarify how early-career practitioners engage in this form of support.

Through our second and third research questions, we examined the differences in burnout and work engagement between counselors who participated in induction programs and those who did not. The burnout scores of school counselors who did not participate in an induction program were higher when compared with those who did, while their work engagement scores were lower. In other words, those who did not participate in an induction program reported greater burnout and less work engagement. Although effect sizes were small and must be considered within the limitations of our study, these findings are supported by literature regarding both teaching (Bickmore & Bickmore, 2010; Ingersoll & Strong, 2011; Kang & Berliner, 2012; Ronfeldt & McQueen, 2017) and school counseling (Curry & Bickmore, 2012; Loveless, 2010; Matthes, 1992; Stickel & Trimmer, 1994) that establishes the critical role of induction in the transition from academic preparation to practice. Research regarding new teachers indicates that induction programs effectively reduce turnover (Ingersoll & Strong, 2011; Kang & Berliner, 2012; Ronfeldt & McQueen, 2017); however, most school counselors in our sample did not participate in any induction activities. Early-career school counselors experience stress and burnout at higher rates (Mullen et al., 2018), and burnout can lead to turnover for school counselors (Lambie, 2007). Induction programs are an effective strategy to mitigate the stress and burnout associated with transitioning into the school counseling field, leading to higher retention of early-career school counselors.

We focused the fourth and fifth research questions on the differences in burnout and work engagement between counselors who have professional mentors and those who do not. The burnout scores of school counselors who did not have a mentor were higher than scores of those who did, while their work engagement scores were lower, both to a medium effect. In a review of our findings, we discerned that mentoring programs likely positively impact school counselors’ professional well-being. However, these findings should be considered within the limitations of the study and should be replicated before drawing significant conclusions. Several research studies indicated that mentoring relationships ease personal and professional stress both for beginning school counselors (Curry & Bickmore, 2012; Loveless, 2010) and for beginning teachers (Bickmore & Bickmore, 2010; DeMichino-Acquadro, 2019; Smith & Ingersoll, 2004). In prior research, as school counselors experienced greater stress, they were more likely to experience greater burnout, and younger and less experienced school counselors were more likely to experience both stress and burnout (Mullen et al., 2018). Our findings support the importance of mentorship as a protective factor against stress and burnout, especially for early-career school counselors.

Implications for Practice and Training

Our findings have implications for principals, school counseling district leaders, counselor educators, and practicing school counselors. Principals can support induction activities by ensuring that new school counselors participate in a meaningful building-level orientation that helps them acclimate to the practical and logistical details of working in their particular school building. Principals should also prioritize relationship building with new school counselors via various strategies, both formal (e.g., establishing ongoing meetings between the principal and new school counselor, sharing feedback and providing support) and informal (e.g., building rapport, informal check-ins, casual conversation). Researchers have reported that collaborative relationships among principals and school counselors can support school improvement and student outcomes, and enhance school counselors’ professional roles, self-efficacy, and experiences of job satisfaction and turnover (Clemens et al., 2009; Finkelstein, 2009; Janson et al., 2008; McConnell et al., 2020; Yavuz et al., 2017). New school counselors should also be included in school leadership and student support teams (Geiger & Oehrtman, 2020). Last, principals can work in partnership with school counseling district leaders to ensure that new school counselors are paired with experienced mentors and that they participate in professional development relevant to their transition into the school counseling role.

School counseling district leaders can create formal mentor relationships by pairing new counselors with mentors in the same school or another school within the district. Although scholarship on professional mentorship programs in school counseling is limited, VanZandt and Perry (1992) described one early example, a statewide mentorship program. District leaders can also ensure that assigned mentors are trained to build effective relationships with mentees and communicate expectations about the appropriate timing and frequency of mentoring meetings (DuBois & Karcher, 2014; VanZandt & Perry, 1992). District leaders are recommended to create opportunities for new school counselors to collaborate with others, perhaps by building a cohort of new school counselors with ongoing meetings or by including new school counselors on other standing district-level school counseling teams. Principals most often support the induction of new teachers and may be less familiar with the specific needs of school counselors, so district leaders can partner with administrators to provide relevant orientations and ongoing professional development that offers targeted support to new school counselors as they transition into practice.

Counselor educators play a critical role in preparing school counseling students for the professional and personal realities of their transition into the field. Because the quality of the relationship between principal and school counselor is impactful (Clemens et al., 2009; Dahir et al., 2010; Dollarhide et al., 2007; McCarty et al., 2014; Rock et al., 2017), especially as new school counselors acclimate to their buildings, counselor educators can prepare students to build effective and positive relationships with their principals. Scholars have introduced various approaches to school counseling leadership (Dollarhide, 2003; Mason & McMahon, 2009; Mullen et al., 2017; Young & Dollarhide, 2017) that might be relevant to teaching new school counselors to support their ability to form effective relationships with their administration. Counselor educators should also encourage students to create plans for their transition that identify strategies for pursuing mentoring support from experienced counselors, advocating for relevant professional development, partnering with administrators, and seeking membership in state and national professional organizations that provide opportunities for collegiality and collaboration. Last, counselor educators can partner with district leaders to build high-quality and relevant professional development, mentor training, and orientation materials.

Our findings indicate that many school counselors may not have access to formal induction programs and professional mentoring relationships. Although principals and district leaders primarily determine the design and delivery of the elements of induction programs, practicing school counselors can have some impact on their own experiences of mentorship. Experienced school counselors can proactively offer to serve as mentors to new school counselors, connecting with novice practitioners in the same school or district, through professional state and national counseling associations, and through counselor education programs, including their own graduate training program and those that are near where they currently work. Experienced school counselors can also prioritize formal training and professional development about topics related to effective mentorship to improve their ability to develop and sustain mentoring relationships (Curry & Bickmore, 2013). New school counselors who do not have access to an induction program and are not paired with a formal mentor can examine their existing networks and build new connections to identify a mentor. Strategies for initiating a mentoring relationship within novices’ existing networks include connecting with experienced school counselors in their current schools and districts or with experienced alumni from their graduate training program (Thomas, 2005). Engagement in professional counseling organizations at the state and national level, including participation in virtual or in-person learning and networking opportunities, may be particularly helpful in seeking new connections with possible mentors.

Limitations and Future Research Directions

Our study is not without limitations that readers should consider when contextualizing our findings. Existing research is limited regarding school counseling induction programs and their impacts on early-career school counselors; thus, much of our study uses prior research about teacher induction as a foundation. The scope in our sample is also limited: With most participants being White and female, our data may not be representative of school counselors of different ethnicities and genders. Our sample included 152 practicing school counselors, and although it was a simple random sampling from across the United States, the size of the sample limits its generalizability. We sampled school counselors in the first 10 years of their careers although gathering data from professionals earlier in their caree might be more informative. Finally, this was a cross-sectional, causal-comparative study, and our results should not be interpreted as identifying any cause-and-effect relationships.

The need for further research on school counseling induction programs and their impact on school counselors’ transition into practice is evident. Researchers can extend our cross-sectional design to explore these concepts longitudinally, partnering with districts to measure the effects of induction supports on cohorts of new school counselors over time. This would require a comprehensive sampling design to acquire a sufficiently sized sample of beginning school counselors. Future research also could qualitatively explore existing school counselor induction programs through schools or districts, such as via a case study approach, to understand their structures and outcomes to inform the development of future induction programs. Last, the findings of this study could be replicated with a larger sample, and with a stratified sample to intentionally capture the experiences of diverse participants.

Conclusion

Although early-career school counselors face professional and personal challenges, we found that those who participate in induction and mentoring activities during their transition into the field experience decreased burnout and increased work engagement. Despite these positive impacts, most school counselors in our sample did not participate in an induction program, and more than one third of participants could not identify a professional mentor. Induction and mentoring activities decrease both personal and professional stress for early-career school counselors, and our results provide early evidence that induction and mentoring activities can have a potentially positive impact on school counselor retention.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Emily Kitching

Patrick R. Mullen

Nancy Chae

Author Biographies

Emily Kitching is a doctoral student in counselor education and supervision at Virginia Commonwealth University in Richmond, VA. Email: kitchingea@vcu.edu

Patrick R. Mullen, Ph.D., is an associate professor and chair of the Department of Counseling and Special Education at Virginia Commonwealth University.

Nancy Chae, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the Department of Counseling and Marital and Family Therapy at the University of San Diego in San Diego, CA.

Adrienne Backer, Ph.D., is an assistant professor in the Department of Counseling and Educational Psychology at Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi.

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School Counselors’ Experiences of Induction and Mentoring

Abstract

Keywords

Challenges of New Education Professionals

Learning From Teacher Induction Programs

Mentoring

Orientations

Administrator Interaction

Opportunities for Collaboration

Professional Development

School Counseling Induction Programs

Method

Participants and Procedures

Measures

Induction and Mentoring

Burnout

Work Engagement

Data Analysis Procedures

Results

Research Questions 2 and 3

Research Questions 4 and 5

Discussion

Implications for Practice and Training

Limitations and Future Research Directions

Conclusion

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

Funding

ORCID iDs

Author Biographies

References