Making the Grade: The Importance of Academic Enablers in the Elementary School Counseling Program

Abstract

Elementary school counselors can support academic achievement by connecting their comprehensive programs to increasing academic competence. One valuable framework focuses on academic enablers, which are identified as interpersonal skills, motivation, engagement, and study skills (DiPerna, 2004). In this article, the authors (a) discuss the essential role of elementary school counselors in supporting student achievement, (b) provide an overview of the academic enablers’ framework, and (c) offer practical recommendations for implementing this framework.

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Allen

J. D.

(2005). Grades as valid measures of academic achievement of classroom learning. The Clearing House, 78 (5), 218–223. doi:10.3200/TCHS.78.5.218-223

American School Counselor Association. (2004). ASCA student standards. Alexandria, VA: Author.

American School Counselor Association. (2008). The professional school counselor and response to intervention. Alexandria, VA: Author.

American School Counselor Association (2012). The ASCA National Model: A framework for school counseling programs (3rd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Author.

Anderman

E. M.

, Anderman

L. H.

, & Griesinger

(1999). The relation of present and possible academic selves during early adolescence to grade point average and achievement goals. Elementary School Journal, 100, 3–17. doi:10.1086/461940

Areepattamannil

, Freeman

J. G.

, & Klinger

D. A.

(2011). Intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and academic achievement among Indian adolescents in Canada and India. Social Psychology of Education, 14 (3), 427–439. doi:10.1007/s11218-011-9155-1

Bandura

(1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Bandura

(1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: Freeman.

Bandura

, & Walters

(1963). Social learning and personality development. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

10.

Barna

J. S.

, & Brott

P. E.

(2011). How important is personal/social development to academic achievement? The elementary counselor's perceptive. Professional School Counseling, 14, 242–249.

11.

Barna

J. S.

, & Brott

P. E.

(2012). Elementary school counselors’ motivation to support student academic achievement through identified standards. Journal of School Counseling, 10(8). Retrieved from http://www.jsc.montana.edu/articles/v10n8.pdf

12.

Barthelemy

J. J.

, & Lounsbury

J. W.

(2009). The relationship between aggression and the big 5 personality factors in predicting academic success. Journal of Behavior in the Social Environment, 19, 159–170. doi:10.1080/10911350802687125

13.

Bempechat

, Li

, Neier

S. M.

, Gillis

C. A.

, & Holloway

S. D.

(2011). The homework experience: Perceptions of low-income youth. Journal of Advanced Academics, 22, 250–278. doi:10.1177/1932202X1102200204

14.

Bidell

M. P.

, & Deacon

R. E.

(2010). School counselors connecting the dots between disruptive classroom behavior and youth self-concept. Journal of School Counseling, 8(9). Retrieved from http://jsc.montana.edu/articles/v8n9.pdf

15.

Blair

(2002). Integrating cognition and emotion in a neurobiological conceptualization of children's functioning at school entry. American Psychologist, 57, 111–127. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.57.2.111

16.

Bowman-Perrott

, Davis

, Vannets

, Williams

, Greenwood

, & Parker

(2013). Academic benefits of peer tutoring: A meta-analytic review of single-case research. School Psychology Review, 42 (1), 39–55.

17.

Brand

, Felner

, Shim

, Seitsinger

, & Dumas

(2003). Middle school improvement and reform: Development and validation of a school-level assessment of climate, cultural pluralism, and school safety. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95 (3), 570–588. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.95.3.570

18.

Brott

P. E.

(2006). Counselor education accountability: Training the effective professional school counselor. Professional School Counseling, 10, 179–187.

19.

Bryan

R. R.

, Glynn

S. M.

, & Kittleson

J. M.

(2011). Motivation, achievement, and advanced placement of high school students learning science. Science Education, 95, 1049–1065. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sce.20462

20.

Byrd

C. M.

, & Chavous

T. M.

(2009). Racial identity and academic achievement in the neighborhood context: A multilevel analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 544–559. doi:10.1007/s10964-008-9381-9.

21.

Dahir

C. A.

(2004). Supporting a nation of learners: The role of school counseling in educational reform. Journal of Counseling & Development, 82, 344–353. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6678.2004.tb00320.x

22.

Dahir

C. A.

, Burnham

J. J.

, & Stone

C. B.

(2009). Listen to the voices: School counselors and comprehensive school counseling programs. Professional School Counseling, 12, 182–192. doi:10.5330/PSC.n.2010-12.182

23.

Dahir

C. A.

, & Stone

C. B.

(2003). Accountability: A M.E.A.S.U.R.E. of the impact school counselors have on student achievement. Professional School Counseling, 6, 214–221.

24.

Dahir

C. A.

, & Stone

C. B.

(2009). School counselor accountability: The path to social justice and systemic change. Journal of Counseling & Development, 87 (1), 12–20. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6678.2009.tb00544.x

25.

Dahir

C. A.

, & Stone

C. B.

(2011). School counselor accountability: A MEASURE of student success(3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

26.

Deci

E. L.

, & Ryan

R. M.

(1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York, NY: Plenum.

27.

Deci

E. L.

, Koestner

, & Ryan

R. M.

(2001). Extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation in education: Reconsidered once again. Review of Educational Research, 71 (1), 1–27.

28.

Deci

E. L.

, & Vansteenkiste

M. V.

(2004). Self-determination theory and basic need satisfaction: Understanding human development in positive psychology. Ricerche di Psicologia, 27 (1), 23–40.

29.

Demaray

M. K.

, & Jenkins

L. N.

(2011). Relations among academic enablers and academic achievement in children with and without high levels of parent-related symptoms of inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. Psychology in the Schools, 48 (6), 573–586. doi:10.1002/pits.20578

30.

Devine

T. G.

(1987). Teaching study skills: A guide for teachers. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

31.

DiPerna

J. C.

(1997). Academic competence: The construct and its measurement via teacher ratings. Unpublished master's thesis: University of Wisconsin-Madison.

32.

DiPerna

J. C.

(2004). Structural and concurrent validity evidence for the Academic Competence Evaluation Scales-college edition. Journal of College Counseling, 7, 64–72. doi:10.1002/j.2161-1882.2004.tb00260.x

33.

DiPerna

J. C.

(2006). Academic enablers and student achievement: Implications for assessment and intervention in the schools. Psychology in the Schools, 43 (1), 7–17. doi:10.1002/pits.20125

34.

DiPerna

J. C.

, & Elliott

S. N.

(1999). The development and validation of the Academic Competence Evaluation Scale. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 17, 207–225. doi:10.1177/073428299901700302

35.

DiPerna

J. C.

, & Elliott

S. N.

(2000). Academic Competence Evaluation Scales: Manual K-12. San Antonio, TX: Pearson.

36.

DiPerna

J. C.

, & Elliott

S. N.

(2002). Promoting academic enablers to improve student achievement: An introduction to the mini-series. School Psychology Review, 31 (3), 293–297.

37.

DiPerna

J. C.

, Volpe

R. J.

, & Elliott

S. N.

(2001). A model of academic enablers and elementary reading/language arts achievement. School Psychology Review, 31 (3), 298–312.

38.

DiPerna

J. C.

, Volpe

R. J.

, & Elliott

S. N.

(2005). A model of academic enablers and mathematics achievement in the elementary grades. Journal of School Psychology, 43, 379–392. doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2005.09.002

39.

Dockery

(2010). School dropout indicators, trends, and interventions for school counselors. Journal of School Counseling, 10 (12), 1–32. Retrieved from http://jsc.montana.edu/articles/v10n12.pdf

40.

Dotson-Blake

K. P.

(2010). Learning from each other: A portrait of family-school-community partnerships in the United States and Mexico. Professional School Counseling, 14, 101–114.

41.

Duckworth

A. L.

, Tsukayama

, & Quinn

P. D.

(2012). What No Child Left Behind leaves behind: The roles of IQ and self-control in predicting standardized achievement test scores and report card grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 104 (2), 439–451. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0026280.

42.

Durlak

J. A.

(1997). Successful prevention programs for children and adolescents. New York, NY: Plenum.

43.

Durlak

J. A.

, Weissberg

R. P.

, & Pachan

(2010). A meta-analysis of after school programs that seek to promote personal and social skills in children and adolescents. American Journal of Community Psychology, 45(3–4), 294–309. doi:10.1007/s10464-010-9300-6

44.

Dweck

C. S.

, & Leggett

E. L.

(1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256–273. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.95.2.256

45.

Education Trust. (2011). Poised to lead: How school counselors can drive college and career readiness. Washington, D.C.: Author.

46.

Elliott

S. N.

, DiPerna

J. C.

, Mroch

A. A.

, & Lang

S. C.

(2004). Prevalence and patterns of academic enabling behaviors: An analysis of teachers and students ratings for a national sample of students. School Psychology Review, 33 (2), 302–309.

47.

Elliott

S. N.

, Malecki

C. K.

, & Demaray

M. K.

(2001). New directions in social skills assessment and intervention for elementary and middle school students. Exceptionality, 9(1–2), 19–32. doi:10.1080/09362835.2001.9666989

48.

Fleming

C. B.

, Haggerty

K. P.

, Catalano

R. F.

, Harachi

T. W.

, Mazza

J. J.

, & Gruman

D. H.

(2005). Do social and behavioral characteristics targeted by preventive interventions predict standardized test scores and grades? Journal of School Health, 75 (9), 342–349. doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.2005.tb06694.x

49.

Fuchs

, & Fuchs

L. S.

(2006). Response to intervention: What, why, and how valid is it? Reading Research Quarterly, 41 (1), 93–99. doi:10.1598/RRQ.41.1.4

50.

Gettinger

, & Seibert

J. K.

(2002). Contributions of study skills to academic competence. School Psychology Review, 31 (3), 350–365. Retrieved from http://www.wce.wwu.edu/Depts/SPED/Forms/Kens%20Readings/Instruction/Instruct%20Contributions%20of%20study%20skills%20Gettinger%202002.pdf

51.

Goodman

R. D.

, Miller

M. D.

, & West-Olatunji

C. A.

(2011). Traumatic stress, socioeconomic status, and academic achievement among primary school students. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 4 (3), 252–259. doi:10.1037/a0024912

52.

Greenwood

C. R.

(1991). Longitudinal analysis of time engagement and academic achievement in at-risk and non-risk students. Exceptional Children, 57, 521–535.

53.

Greenwood

C. R.

, Horton

B. T.

, & Utley

C. A.

(2002). Academic engagement: Current perspectives on research and practice. School Psychology Review, 31, 328–349.

54.

Griffin

, & Galassi

J. P.

(2010). Parent perceptions of barriers to academic success in a rural middle school. Professional School Counseling, 14, 87–100.

55.

Guay

, Marsh

H. W.

, & Boivin

(2003). Academic self-concept and academic achievement: Developmental perspectives on their causal ordering. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 124–136. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.95.1.124

56.

Gysbers

N. C.

(2004). Comprehensive guidance and counseling programs: The evolution of accountability. Professional School Counseling, 8, 1–14.

57.

Herman

K. C.

, Lambert

S. F.

, Reinke

W. M.

, & Ialongo

N. S.

(2008). Low academic competence in first grade as a risk factor for depressive cognitions and symptoms in middle school. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 55 (3), 400–410. doi:10.1037/a0012654

58.

Holcomb-McCoy

(2007). School counseling to close the achievement gap. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

59.

Hoover

J. J.

, & Patton

P. R.

(1995). Teaching students with learning problems to use study skills: A teacher's guide. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.

60.

Isaacs

M. L.

(2003). Data-driven decision making: The engine of accountability. Professional School Counseling, 6, 288–295.

61.

Johnson

, & Johnson

C. D.

(2003). Results-based guidance: A systems approach to student support programs. Professional School Counseling, 6, 180–184.

62.

Kaffenberger

, & Young

(2009). Making data work(2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: American School Counselor Association.

63.

Kayler

, & Sherman

(2009). At-risk ninth-grade students: A psychoeducational group approach to increase study skills and grade point averages. Professional School Counseling, 12, 434–439.

64.

Keith

T. Z.

(2002). Academic enablers and school learning. School Psychology Review, 31, 394–402.

65.

Keith

T. Z.

, & Cool

V. A.

(1992). Testing models of school learning: Effects of quality of instruction, motivation, academic coursework, and homework on academic achievement. School Psychology Quarterly, 7 (3), 207–226. doi:10.1037/h0088260

66.

Ladd

G. W.

, Kochenderfer

B. J.

, & Coleman

C. C.

(1996). Friendship quality as a predictor of young children's early school adjustment. Child Development, 67, 1103-1118. doi:10.2307/1131882

67.

Lambert

M. C.

, Cartledge

, & Heward

W. L.

(2006). Effects of response cards on disruptive behavior and academic responding during math lessons by fourth grade urban students. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 8, 88–99. doi:10.1177/10983007060080020701

68.

Langberg

J. M.

, Epstein

J. N.

, Becker

S. P.

, Girio-Herrera

, & Vaughn

A. J.

(2012). Evaluation of the homework, organization, and planning skills (HOPS) intervention for middle school students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder as implemented by school mental health providers. School Psychology Review, 41 (3), 342–364.

69.

Lapan

R. T.

(2001). Results-based comprehensive guidance and counseling programs: A framework for planning and evaluation. Professional School Counseling, 4, 289–299.

70.

Lieberman

(2004). Confusion regarding school counselor functions: School leadership impacts role clarity. Education, 124 (3), 552–558.

71.

Linnenbrink

E. A.

, & Pintrich

P. R.

(2002). Motivation as an enabler for academic success. School Psychology Review, 31 (3), 313–327.

72.

Lucio

, Hunt

, & Bornovalova

(2012). Identifying the necessary and sufficient number of risk factors for predicting academic failure. Developmental Psychology, 48 (2), 422–428. doi:10.1037/a0025939

73.

Magolis

, McCabe

P. P.

, & Alber

S. R.

(2004). Resolving struggling readers’ homework difficulties: How elementary school counselors can help. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 15 (1), 79–110. doi:10.1207/s1532768xjepc1501_4

74.

Malecki

C. M.

, & Elliott

S. N.

(2002). Children's social behaviors as predictors of academic achievement: A longitudinal analysis. School Psychology Quarterly, 17, 1–23. doi:10.1521/scpq.17.1.1.19902

75.

Meece

J. L.

, Anderman

E. M.

, & Anderman

L. H.

(2006). Classroom goal structures, student motivation, and academic achievement. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 487–503. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070258

76.

Meier

C. R.

, DiPerna

J. C.

, & Oster

M. M.

(2006). Importance of social skills in the elementary grades. Education and Treatment of Children, 29 (3), 409–419.

77.

Okilwa

N. S. A.

, & Shelby

(2010). The effects of peer tutoring on academic performance of students with disabilities in grades 6 through 12: A synthesis of the literature. Remedial and Special Education, 31 (6), 450–463.

78.

Otwell

, & Mullis

(1997). Academic achievement and counselor accountability. Elementary School Guidance and Counseling, 31 (4), 343–348.

79.

Paisley

P. O.

, & Hayes

R. L.

(2003). School counseling in the academic domain: Transformations in preparation and practice. Professional School Counseling, 6 (3), 198–204.

80.

Parker

J. D. A.

, Creque

R. E.

, Barnhart

D. L.

, Harris

J. I.

, Majeski

S. A.

, Wood

L. M.

,… Hogan

M. J.

(2004). Academic achievement in high school: Does emotional intelligence matter? Personality and Individual Differences, 37, 1321–1330. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.01.002PaP

81.

Pennsylvania School Counselor Association. (2011). Pennsylvania companion guide to the ASCA National Model: A framework for school counseling programs. Harrisburg, PA: Author.

82.

Perdue

N. H.

, Manzeske

D. P.

, & Estell

D. B.

(2009). Early predictors of school engagement: Exploring the role of peer relationships. Psychology in the Schools, 46 (10), 1084–1097. doi:10.1002/pits.20446

83.

Petrides

K. V.

, Frederickson

, & Furnham

(2004). The role of trait emotional intelligence in academic performance and deviant behavior at school. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 277–293. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00084-9

84.

Pintrich

P. R.

, & Schunk

(2002). Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

85.

Powell

M. L.

, & Newgent

R. A.

(2008). Disc golf play: Using recreation to improve disruptive classroom behaviors. Journal of School Counseling, 6(2). Retrieved from http://www.jsc.montana.edu/articles/v6n2.pdf

86.

Princiotta

, Reyna

, & National Governors Association. (2009). Achieving graduation for all: A governor's guide to dropout prevention and recovery. Washington, D.C.: NGA Center for Best Practices.

87.

Ray

C. E.

, & Elliott

S. N.

(2006). Social adjustment and academic achievement: A predictive model for students with diverse academic and behavior competencies. School Psychology Review, 35 (3), 493–501.

88.

Reynolds

A. R.

, & Walberg

H. J.

(1991). A structural model of science achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 97–107. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.83.1.97

89.

Roeser

R. W.

, & Eccles

J. S.

(1998). Adolescents’ perceptions of middle school: Relationship to longitudinal changes in academic and psychological adjustment. Journal of Research in Adolescents, 8, 123–158. doi:10.1207/s15327795jra0801_6

90.

Rowell

L. L.

, & Hong

(2002). The role of school counselors in homework intervention. Professional School Counseling, 5, 285–291.

91.

Rumberger

R. W.

, & Palardy

G. C.

(2005). Test scores, dropout rates, and transfer rates as alternative indicators of high school performance. American Educational Research Journal, 41, 3–42. doi:10.3102/00028312042001003

92.

Ryan

R. M.

, & Deci

E. L.

(2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 54–67.

93.

Ryan

R. M.

, & Deci

E. L.

(2006). Self-regulation and the problem of human autonomy: Does psychology need choice, self-determination, and will? Journal of Personality, 74 (6), 1557–1585.

94.

Ryan

, Kaffenberger

, Carroll

C. J.

, & Gleason

(2011). Response to intervention: An opportunity for school counselor leadership. Professional School Counseling, 14, 211–221.

95.

Salas

, & Cannon-Bowers

J. A.

(2001). The science of training: A decade of progress. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 471–499. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.471

96.

Saudino

K. J.

, & Plomin

(2007). Why are hyperactivity and academic achievement related? Child Development, 78 (3), 972–986. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01044.x

97.

Scheel

M. J.

, & Gonzalez

(2007). An investigation of a model of academic motivation for school counseling. Professional School Counseling, 11, 49–64. doi:10.5330/PSC.n.2010-11.49

98.

Schenck

P. M.

, Anctil

T. M.

, Smith

C. K.

, & Dahir

(2012). Coming full circle: Reoccurring career development trends in schools. The Career Development Quarterly, 60, 221–230. doi:10.1002/j.2161-0045.2012.00018.x

99.

Seifert

T. L.

(2004). Understanding student motivation. Educational Research, 46 (2), 137–149. doi:10.1080/0013188042000222421

100.

Shannon

, Bylsma

, & Washington Office of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. (2006). Helping students finish school: Why students drop out and how to help them graduate. Olympia, WA: Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction.

101.

Shin

, Daly

, & Vera

(2007). The relationships of peer norms, ethnic identity, and peer support to school engagement in urban youth. Professional School Counseling, 10, 379–388.

102.

Stevenson

H. W.

, & Newman

R. S.

(1986). Long-term prediction of achievement and attitudes in mathematics and reading. Child Development, 57, 646–659. doi:10.2307/1130343

103.

Studer

J. R.

, Diambra

J. F.

, Breckner

J. A.

, & Heidel

E. R.

(2011). Obstacles and successes in implementing the ASCA National Model in schools. Journal of School Counseling, 9 (2), 1–26. Retreived from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ914272.pdf

104.

Szu-Yin

(2011). Perspectives in understanding the schooling and achievement of students from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 38(3–4), 201–209.

105.

The College Board National Office for School Counselor Advocacy (NOSCA). (2011). School counselors literature and landscape review: The state of school counseling in America. New York, NY: College Board: Advocacy and Policy Center.

106.

Trentacosta

C. J.

, & Izard

C. E.

(2007). Kindergarten children's emotional competence as a predictor of their academic competence in first grade. Emotion, 7 (1), 77–88. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.7.1.77

107.

U.S. Department of Education (2001). The no child left behind act. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education.

108.

Valiente

, Lemery-Chalfant

, Swanson

, & Reiser

(2008). Prediction of children's academic competence from their effortful control, relationships, and classroom participation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100 (1), 67–77. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.100.1.67

109.

Van de Pol

, Volman

, & Beishuizen

(2010). Scaffolding in teacher-student interaction: A decade of research. Educational Psychology Review, 22, 271–296. doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9127-6

110.

Vitaro

, Brendgen

, Larosse

, & Trembaly

R. E.

(2005). Kindergarten disruptive behaviors, protective factors, and educational achievement by early adulthood. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97 (4), 617–629. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.97.4.617

111.

Vygotsky

L. S.

(1978). Mind and society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

112.

Webb

L. D.

, Brigman

G. A.

, & Campbell

(2005). Linking school counselors and student success: A replication of the Student Success Skills approach targeting the academic and social competence of students. Professional School Counseling, 8, 407–413.

113.

Wentzel

K. R.

(1991a). Relations between social competence and academic achievement in early adolescence. Child Development, 62, 1066-1078. doi:10.2307/1131152

114.

Wentzel

K. R.

(1991b). Social competence at school: Relation between social responsibility and academic achievement. Review of Educational Research, 61 (1), 1–24. doi:10.3102/00346543061001001

115.

Wentzel

K. R.

(1993). Does being good make the grade? Social behavior and academic competence in middle school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 85 (2), 357–364. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.85.2.357

116.

Wentzel

K. R.

(1999). Social-motivational processes and interpersonal relationships: Implications for understanding motivation at school. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91 (1), 76–97. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.91.1.76

117.

Wentzel

K. R.

(2003). Sociometric status and adjustment in middle school: A longitudinal study. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 23(1), 5–28. doi:10.1177/0272431602239128

118.

Wolters

C. A.

(2004). Advancing achievement goal theory: Using goal structures and goal orientation to predict students’ motivation, cognition, and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236–250. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.96.2.236

119.

Wong

B. Y. L.

(1994). Instructional parameters promoting transfer of learning strategies in students with LD. Learning Disability Quarterly, 7, 111–120.

120.

Zalquett

C. P.

(2005). Principals’ perceptions of elementary school counselors’ roles and functions. Professional School Counseling, 8, 451–457.

121.

Zimmerman

B. J.

(1998). Academic studying and the development of personal skill: A self regulatory perspective. Educational Psychologist, 33, 73–86. doi:10.1080/00461520.1998.9653292