Bystanders’ Detection of Intervention Opportunities in Technology-Facilitated Sexual Dating Abuse: Scale Validation and Correlates

Abstract

Technology-facilitated sexual dating abuse (TFSDA) involves non-consensual sexual behaviors in relationships—such as sharing nude/sexual content—often visible to bystanders, who can intervene and reduce its impact. In Portugal, the lack of assessment measures limits understanding of which intervention opportunities are detected and which adolescents detect them. This study aimed to analyze the psychometric properties of the Scale of Bystanders’ Detection of Intervention Opportunities in TFSDA—adapted from the Technology-Facilitated Abuse in Relationships Scale—estimate the prevalence of detection, and examine associations between detection and gender, age, victimization and/or perpetration. Between February and May 2023, 1,604 Portuguese adolescents (51.4% cisgender boys; M_age = 14.92, SD = 1.73) in grades 7–12 from 25 schools in northern and central Portugal completed an online questionnaire. This sample was divided into calibration (n₁ = 444) and validation (n₂ = 579, n₃ = 581). Exploratory factor analysis identified an 8-item, two-factor structure—Sexual Coercion and Image-Based Sexual Harassment/Abuse—explaining 53% of the variance. Confirmatory factor analysis demonstrated good fit indices, and measurement invariance was achieved for gender and age. Convergent and discriminant validity were acceptable, with high reliability across samples. Results indicate that 21.3% of adolescents detected intervention opportunities in TFSDA. Cisgender girl were less likely, while older adolescents were more likely, to detect Image-Based Sexual Harassment/Abuse. Victims and victim-perpetrators of TFSDA reported higher detection rates. Findings support the scale’s psychometric robustness and its utility in research, clinical, and forensic contexts, while highlighting groups that may benefit from awareness or skills training to address TFSDA.