There have been numerous advances in all of the associated subspecialty areas necessary for successful congenital cardiac surgery over the last 2 decades. Within the operating room itself, advances have occurred in instrumentation, prosthetics and biomaterials, surgical optics including loupes, and fiberoptic lighting. However, some of the most important advances have been in the techniques and hardware of cardiopulmonary bypass, the use of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation support in the intensive care unit, and the refinement of strategies to optimize neurodevelopmental outcomes.
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